London is the city which sends four members; the city of Ely does not send one; Weymouth and Melcombe-Regis is the borough sending four members; the five boroughs sending one mem ber each, are Abingdon, Banbury, Bewdly, Higham-Ferrers, and Monmouth; the universities are Oxford and Cambridge; the Cinque Ports are Hastings, Dover, Sandwich, Romney, and Hithe; and the three branches, Rye, Winchelsea, and Seaford. In Scotland, the six counties sending alternately are Bute and Caithness, Nairn and Cromarty, Clackmannan and Ross, each two sending one alternately; Edinburgh is the city sending one. In Ireland the cities sending two are Dublin and Cork; those sending one are Kilkenny, Limerick, Londonderry, Cashel, and Waterford; the university is Dublin. In Wales, Pembroke is the borough sending two: Merioneth does not send one.

ELECTION OF ECCLESIASTICAL PERSONS. Elections for the dignities of the church ought to be free, according to the stat. 9 Ed. II. cap. 14. If any persons that have a voice in elections, take any reward for an election in any church, college, school, &c., the elect on shall be void. And if any persons of such societies resign their places to others for reward, they incur a forfeiture of double the sum; and both the parties are rendered incapable of the place. Stat. 31 Eliz. c. 6. ELECTION OF SCOTTISH PEERS. See PEERS. ELECTION OF VERDERORS OF THE FOREST (electionæ viridariorum forestæ), in law, a writ that lies for the choice of a verderor, where any of the verderors of the forest are dead, or removed from their offices. This writ is directed to the sheriff, and the verderor is to be elected by his freeholders of the county, in the same manner as coroners. New. Nat. Brev. 366.

ELECTOR (in Germ. churfüst, kurfüst, or wahlfürst) was even in recent times a title of several princes of the German empire of considerable power and dignity. During a long period,' says Dr. Robertson (Hist. Charles V.),

10

6

16

658 members.

all the members of the Germanic body had a right to assemble, and to make choice of the person whom they appointed to be their head. But, amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the most extensive territories, and who had obtained an hereditary title to the great offices of the state, acquired the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. This right was confirmed to them by the golden bull of Charles IV.; the mode of exercising it was ascertained, and they were dignified with the appellation of electors. The nobility and free cities being thus stripped of a privilege which they had once enjoyed, were less connected with a prince towards whose elevation they had not contributed by their suffrages, and came to be more apprehensive of his authority. The electors, by their extensive power, and the distinguishing privileges which they possessed, became formidable to the emperors, with whom they were placed almost on a level in several acts of jurisdiction. Thus the introduction of the electoral college into the empire, and the authority which it acquired, instead of diminishing, contributed to strengthen the principles of hostility and discord on the Germanic constitution.'

The seven princes above alluded to were the three ecclesiastical princes, the archbishop of Cologne, Mentz, and Treves; and the four secular, the count Palatine, the king of Bohemia, the marquis of Brandenburgh, and the duke of Saxony.

In 1648 the duke of Bavaria took the place of the count Palatine, who was outlawed by the emperor for having accepted the crown of Bohemia: but he was at length restored to his rank, and a new electoral dignity was created for the former, which increased the number of electors to eight. In 1692 a ninth electorate was added by the emperor Leopold, in favor of the duke of Hanover, of the house of Brunswick Luneburg. From that period, to the year 1777, the electoral

college consisted of the three ecclesiastical electors, Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, and the six secular, Bohemia, the palatinate of the Rhine, Saxony, Brandenburg, Bavaria, and Hanover. The dominions of the last elector palatine of the Rhine, having devolved in December 1777 to the elector of Bavaria, the electoral college was again reduced to eight members, until the peace of Luneville; when the three ecclesiastical electorates were secularised, the archbishop of Ratisbon introduced as a new elector arch-chancellor, and the duke of Wirtemberg, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, the margrave of Baden, and the grand duke of Tuscany, as duke of Saltzburg, raised to the electoral dignity. This increased the number of electors to ten, viz. the elector arch-chancellor, Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, Hanover, Wirtemberg, Hesse Cassel, Baden, and Saltzburg.

This arrangement was finally destroyed, as we have seen (article DIET), in the year 1806, when the German empire was dissolved. Bavaria and Wirtemberg, on joining the Confederation of the Rhine, under the protection of the French empire, assumed the royal dignity; Hanover was in possession of the French; Baden and Saltzburg took the titles of grand dukes; the elector archchancellor that of the prince primate of the Confederacy of the Rhine: and the year following Saxony assumed the royal dignity; Hesse Cassel was annexed to the new kingdom of Westphalia; Bohemia as part of the dominions of Austria, and Brandenburg as part of those of Prussia, reverted to these two houses as independent monarchical states. And thus the title of elector, which for so long a series of years conferred a rank equal to that of the old kings of Europe, became finally extinct.

The last electors of the German empire were, 1. Charles Theodore, baron Dahlberg, elector of Ratisbon, and arch chancellor, now prince primate. 2. Frederick William III., king of Prussia, elector of Brandenburg. 3. George III., king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover. 4. Ferdinand Joseph, elector of Saltzburg, now duke of Saltzburg. 5. Frederick II., elector, now king of Wirtemberg. 6. Charles Frederick, elector, now grand duke of Baden. 7. William IX, elector of Hesse Cassel, driven from his dominions by the French. 8. Maximilian Jo

seph, elector, at present king of Bavaria. 9. Frederick Augustus IV., elector, at present king of Saxony; and, 10. Francis II., elector of Bohemia, afterwards emperor of Austria.

The electors besides the power of electing an emperor, had a right to capitulate with the new head of the empire, to dictate the conditions on which he was to reign and to depose him if he broke those conditions. They actually deposed Adolphus of Nassau, in 1298, and Wenceslaus in 1401. They were sovereign and independent princes in their respective dominions, had the privilegium de non appellando illimitatum,' that of making war, coining, and exercising every act of sovereignty. They formed a separate college in the diet of the empire, and had among themselves a particular covenant, or league, called the Kur verein.' They had precedence of all the other princes of the empire, even of cardinals, and ranked with kings. There was, however, a difference between the secular and ecclesiastical electors; none of the latter could be chosen emperor, and they were to be thirty years of age before they could attain the electoral dignity, whilst the majority of the secular electors was fixed at eighteen years of age, and any of them might be placed at the head of the empire; indeed they might even vote in their own favor. The functions of the electors were exercised by deputies. The elector of Mentz was arch-chancellor in Germany; Treves, in Gaul and the kingdom of Arles; Cologne, in Italy; Bohemia was arch-cupbearer; Bavaria, arch-sewer, or officer who serves out the feasts; Saxony, arch-marshal; Brandenburg, arch-chamberlain; Hanover, arch-treasurer. During the vacancy of the imperial throne, the elector of Saxony used to be vicar of the empire in the north, and the elector of Bavaria of the southern circles. On the demise of an emperor of Germany, or a vacancy ensuing in the imperial throne, the electors were summoned by the archbishop of Mentz to meet (generally at Frankfort) within three months. One month was ordinarily allowed for their determination; if it was delayed longer they were, according to the imperial constitution, to be fed on bread and water until they had made a choice. Both their dress and functions are particularly described by Du Cange.

ELECTRE, n. s. Gr. ExTpov; Latin, ELECTRIC, adj. electrum, amber, which, ELECTRICAL, having the quality when ELECTRICIAN, N. S. warmed by friction of ELECTRICITY, attracting bodies, gave ELECTRIFY, v. a. to one species of attracELECTRISE, v. a. tion the name of elecELECTROMETER, N. s. tricity, and to the bodies that so attract the epithet electric; which also means produced by an electric body; and meBacon uses taphorically, rapid; powerful. electre for a metallic compound. An electrician is he who is skilled in electricity. To electrify, electrum and fio, to render electric, or apply electricity, and to electrise, are used synonymously. Electrometer, an instrument for ascertaining the

trick body, and to be expanded through a sphere, whose diameter is above two feet, and yet to be able to carry up lead, copper, or leaf gold, at the distance of above a foot from the electrick body. Newton. When I would observe the electricity of the atmosphere with this instrument, I thrust the pin I into the cork D, and holding the rod by its lower end A, project it out of a window on the upper part of a house, into the air; raising the end of the rod with the electrometer, so as to make an angle of about fifty or sixty

degrees with the horizon.

Cavallo.

Then mark how two electric streams conspire To form the resinous and vitreous fire. Darwin. If a metallic point be fixed on the prime conductor, and the flame of a candle be presented to it, on electrising the conductor either with vitreous or resinous ether, the flame of the candle is blown from the point, which must be owing to the electric fluid in its passage from the point carrying along with it a stream of atmospheric air. Id.

But now a bride and mother-and now there! How many ties did that stern moment tear! From thy Sire's to his humblest subject's breast Is linked the electrick chain of that despair, Whose shock was as an earthquake's, and opprest Thy land which loved thee so that none could love Byron.

thee best.

And the wild sparkle of his eye seemed caught From high, and lightened with electric thought.

Id.

1. The particular branch of science denominated electricity appears to have derived its name from that of the first substance in which any of its properties were discovered. This was amber, the Greek name of which is nλEKTρov, evidently derived from 'HAExTwp, a name by which Homer designates the Sun. It has been said by some that the ancients, observing amber to possess the property of attracting light substances when rubbed, termed it electrum, and that hence arose the word electricity. Those who entertain this opinion, would derive the name from the Greek verb λw to draw; but this appears to us to be a very forced derivation, since amber was doubtless called by the name of electron, long before it was known to possess the magnetic property of attraction. Perhaps it was so called from its bright and shining appearance. But, whatever may be the etymology of the term, it is now employed to designate that science which investigates the attractions and repulsions, the emissions of light, and explosions, which are produced, not only by the friction of vitreous, resinous, and metallic surfaces, but by the heating, cooling, evaporation, and mutual contact of a vast number of sub

stances.

2. It is rather remarkable that, although the attractive energy of electricity has all the appearance of being a very recent discovery, it has been said to be the first physical fact recorded in the history of science. The electrical properties of amber were known and pointed out upwards of 2000 years ago; but the subject did not engage the attention of the learned till the beginning of the seventeenth century. This was perhaps a fortunate circumstance, since it at all events prevented the science from being clouded or perverted by the ignorance of early times.

3. Dr. William Gilbert, of Colchester, appears to have been the first person who essentially contributed to the establishment of electricity as a science. In the year 1600 he published his work entitled De Magnete, which contains a number of experiments made with various substances, possessing the properties of amber, now termed electrics. Of Dr. Gilbert, Cavallo

says that he ought to be considered as the father of electricity.

4. No further discoveries were made in this science of any importance till the year 1670, when the celebrated Mr. Boyle much enlarged the list of electrics, and by experiment discovered that their effects were much increased by warming and wiping them before the application of friction, and that during the friction they emitted faint flashes of light; this appearance he considered as an additional characteristic of the electrical power.

5. Otto Guericke of Magdeburg, the inventor of the air-pump, and a contemporary with Mr. Boyle, confirmed the experiments of the latter, and much enlarged the state of electrical knowledge. He constructed an apparatus in which the electric, a globe of sulphur, was made to revolve on an axis; the hand was applied to it as a rubber; and by this contrivance, which was in principle the same as the most modern construction of the electrical machine, he was enabled to obtain an accumulation of electricity far beyond any thing that had been effected by his predecessors. This philosopher discovered also the principle of electrical repulsion.

6. In the year 1709 appeared the first treatise on electricity; it was the production of Mr. Hawksbee, who far exceeded his predecessors in the discoveries which he made. He was the first who observed the electric power of rubbed glass; the flashing light of an excited electric had been observed by Boyle; but, as Mr. Hawksbee by his glass globe could collect the electric matter in much greater quantities than had been done before, he had the pleasure of beholding the intensity of its light, and of observing the snapping noise by which its discharges are attended. Some of the experiments made by Mr. Hawksbee were very curious, and deserve more notice than has hitherto been taken of them. Among others the following may be mentioned. He lined more than one-half of a glass globe with sealing-wax, and, having exhausted it of its air, he put it in motion in an appropriate frame. On applying his hand to it, for the purpose of excitation, he was surprised to observe an exact image of his hand on the concave surface of the wax, as distinctly defined as if there had been nothing but transparent glass between his eye and his hand, although the wax was in some places an eighth of an inch in thickness. When pitch was used instead of wax the effect was the same.

7. After this period the science of electricity appears to have been for some time stationary, from the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton absorbing the attention of the public; but, soon after the death of that distinguished individual, it obtained renewed attention, and some very important discoveries were made in it by Mr.

tricity can be obtained at pleasure, both from glass and sealing-wax, by varying the nature of the substance with which they are rubbed. Hence the vitreous electricity of Du Fay is now called positive electricity; and the resinous, negative electricity; terms first proposed by Dr. Franklin.

13. To the labors of Messrs. Grey and Wheeler, and their coadjutors Du Fay and Nollet, all subsequent electricians are highly indebted; their means of research were extended by the improvement of electrical apparatus, necessarily resulting from the discovery of conducting and non-conducting power; whilst the generalisation of electric phenomena by Du Fay, and his discovery of the distinction between positive and negative electricity, was an enlargement of the existing sphere of knowledge in a degree before unparalleled. From this period, indeed, the science assumed a more important aspect, its cultivators increased in number, and the communication of their researches constituted a prominent feature in the transactions of the most celebrated societies and academies of Europe.

14. It was in the year 1745 that the remarkable properties of the Leyden phial were first observed. This discovery was merely accidental; yet it tended, more than any other discovery hitherto made, to promote the progress of electricity. The circumstances that led to this discovery were the following:-Professor Muschenbroeck observed, that when conducting bodies were placed on glass, &c., and electrified, their electricity was very soon carried off by the conducting particles floating in the atmosphere; he therefore imagined, if a conducting substance were put into a glass phial, that it could be charged much higher than in open air, as the glass would protect it from the dissipating action of the atmosphere.

15. This idea he attempted to put in practice by filling a small phial with water, which is a conducting substance. For this purpose he passed the end of a wire through the cork of the phial, so as to touch the water, and then charged the water by bringing the wire in contact with the prime conductor, but found no extraordinary result from the experiment. Mr. Cuneus, of Leyden, who was one of the party when the professor made the experiment, repeated it afterwards; and, happening to hold the phial in his hand, after he had connected the wire with the prime conductor, until the water, as he supposed, had received a full charge of electricity, and then applying his other hand to unloose the wire from the conductor, he received such a sudden shock in his arms and breast, as filled him with asto

nishment.

16. The report of such a strong effect of the electric power immediately raised the attention of all the philosophers in Europe. Many of them greatly exaggerated their accounts; either from a natural timidity, or a love of the marvellous. M. Muschenbroeck, who tried the experiment with a very thin glass bowl, told M. Reaumur in a letter written soon after the experiment, that he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulder, and breast, so that he lost his breath; and was two

days before he recovered from the effects of the blow, and the terror. He added, that he would not take a second shock for the whole kingdom of France. Mr. Allamand, who made the experiment with a common beer glass, said, that he lost his breath for some moments; and then felt such an intense pain all along his right arm, that he was apprehensive of bad consequences, but it soon after went off without any inconvenience, &c. Other philosophers, on the contrary, showed their magnanimity, by receiving a number of electric shocks as strong as they could possibly make them. Mr. Boze wished that he might die by the electric shock, in order to furnish, by his death, an article for the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. But, adds Dr. Priestley, in his history of electricity, it is not given to every electrician to die in so glorious a manner, as the justly envied Richman. Public curiosity was promptly and highly excited by this discovery, and all Europe was presently filled with itinerant exhibitors of the Leyden Jar, who obtained a livelihood by administering the electrical shock. The experiment was repeated and varied by the electricians of every country, and an explanation of the principle on which the effect depends, was offered by Dr. Franklin of America, and Dr. Watson in England, at the same time, without the one knowing that the other was engaged in the pursuit. The propositions of these two philosophers, observes Mr. Singer, were nearly similar; but that of Dr. Franklin being the more perfect, and having a real priority of publication, was adopted, and has been since celebrated as the Franklinean Theory of Electricity. He referred all electrical effects to the motion of a peculiar fluid, repulsive of its own particles, and having an attraction for all other matter. And he considered the opposite electricities of glass and sealing-wax as indications of different states of this fluid: the vitreous electricity being the plus or positive state, and the resinous the minus or negative state. All bodies can contain a certain quantity of electric fluid in a latent state. If this quantity be increased they become electrified positively; if it be diminished they are rendered negative. The production of electrical effects is therefore nothing but the result of the unequal distribution, by art, of a naturally diffused fluid. Such are the leading principles of the Franklinean theory; they have been considered mathematically by Mr. Cavendish, by

pinus, and others, and, with some modifications, apply to most of the electrical phenomena at present known.

17. Frequent experiments, attended with close observation, were likely enough to lead to important results in this interesting science; and we have now arrived at a period in its history which is perhaps the most distinguished of any. We allude to the discovery of the identity of electricity and lightning. Mr. Grey and Dr. Wall seem to have been the first who thought of the resemblance between thunder and the snapping noise which is heard when an excited electric is approached by a conducting substance. The abbé Nollet, Mr. Winckler, and others, also enumerated many resemblances between the phenomena of electricity and those of thunder;