to remember; sculan, shall, should; mágan, may, might; ágan, to own; witan, to know; dugan, to avail; nugan, to suffice; mótan, must. We give, in four columns, the pres. 1, 3 sing., the 2 sing., the plur., and the perf.: the VI., VII., etc. refer to the corresponding classes of primary verbs.

With 2 sing. cunne, there is also a canst, const;

with, durre, a dearst.

Somewhat similar to these is (m) the verb willan, to will, which makes pres. 1. wille, 2. wilt, 3. wille, pl. willadh; perf. wolde. So, too, nyllan ( = ne willan) to be unwilling, pres. nylle, nylt, nylle, nylladh; perf. nolde.

§ 95. B. (a) Wesan, to be, is thus declined :—

For si, in the subj., are also used sig, seo, and sý. There is also a defective beón, to be, the present of which is generally used in a future sense.

(b) Gán, to go, defective, found in pres. 1. gá; 2. gæst, 3. gædh; subj. gá; imp. gá, pl. gádh. From the same root, with added nasal, come pres. gange; perf. gieng, geóng, gêng, and gengde. The defective perf. eode, went, comes from a root i.

(c) Dôn, to do, makes pres. 1. dô, 2. dést, 3. dédh, pl. dódh; subj. dô, pl. dôn; perf. dide (or dyde); imp. dô, pl. dôdh; part. act. dônde, pass. dôn.

§ 96. C. Several verbs which have the primary inflexion in the perfect and the passive participle, appear in their other forms as verbs of secondary inflexion. Thus, biddan, bäd, bædon, beden, ask, bid; sittan, sät, sæton, seten, sit; licgan, läg, lægon, legen, lie; thicgan, thah, thagon, thegen, touch, taste; hebban, hôf, hôfon, hafen, heave, lift; swerian, swôr, swôron, sworen, swear. All but swerian connect themselves with the first class of secondary verbs.

From fahan, hahan, contracted fôn, to take, hôn, to hang, come pres. 1. fô, hô; 2. fêst, fæst, fæhst,; hêst,

hehst, hæst; 3. fêdh, fædh, fæhdh; hêdh, hêhdh, hædh; pl. fôdh, hôdh. From the same roots, with added nasal, come fangan, hangan, perf. fêng, hêng.

The verb bringan, to bring, has two formations in the perf. and the pass. part.: brang, brungon, brungen, and brohte, brohton, broht; standan, to stand, drops n in the perf. stôd, stódon, standen; bregdan, to braid, brägd, brugdon, brogden, often drops the g, and passes from the 6th class to the 7th, bredan, bräd, brædon, broden: thihan, to thrive, tháh, thigon, thigen, of the 8th class, has passed into the form of the 9th, theón (for theóhan), theáh, thugon, thogen; and the same is true of sîhan (seón), to strain, tîhan (teón), to convict, wrihan (wreón), to cover.

§ 97. D. The following verbs of secondary inflexion are irregular: thencan, to think, perf. thohte; thyncan, to seem, perf. thûhte; weorcan, wircan, wyrcan, to work, perf. worhte, weorhte; bycgan, to buy, perf. bohte; gearwan, gyrwan, to prepare, searwan, syrwan, to equip, perf. gyrede, syrede, but pass. part. gegyrwed, gesyrwed. Búan, to inhabit, perf. búde, but pass. part. gebûn: from the same root come búian (búgan, búgian), búwian, of the second class.

§ 98. Missing Forms. The Anglo-Saxon has no future tense, but uses the present tense both as a present and as a future. The verbs wille and sceal are sometimes used, as in English, to express the future, but generally not without the idea of volition or of necessity, which properly belongs to those verbs.

The perfect definite and the pluperfect are supplied, as in English, by using forms of habban, to have, with the passive participle of the verb.

The passive is supplied by using the auxiliary verbs wesan, to be, or weordhan, to become, with the passive participle. Thus eom and weordhe are used for the present passive; was and weardh for the perfect; beó or sceal beón for the future; eom-worden for the perfect definite, and was-worden for the pluperfect.

PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 99. Prepositions are used with the accusative, dative, and genitive: we give the simple prepositions, and some of the more important compound

ones.

With the accusative: geond, beyond, through ; thurh, through, by; ymb (ymbe), round, about; agen, ongeán, against, toward; abútan, about; ymbútan, round about; widhutan, without; widhinnan, within.

With the dative: äfter, after; ær, ere; ät, at; be, bí, by, concerning; fram, from; neáh, near; of, of; tô, to; intô, into; toweard, toward; beäften (bäften), behind; beheonan, on this side of; betweox, betwixt ; betwýnan, between; bufan, above; bútan, without, except.

With the genitive: andlang, along.

With the accusative and dative: for, for; ofer, over; on, an, in, in, on, to; ôdh, unto; under, under; beforan, before; gemang, among; tô geánes, toward, against; innan, within; uppan, upon; útan, without. These take the accusative when motion to a place, the dative when rest in a place, is either expressed or implied. Mid, with, takes the accusative, and

also the instrumental, which generally coincides with the dative.

With the accusative, dative, and genitive: widh, with.

§ 100. The most important conjunctions are ac, but; and, and; bútan, unless; eac, also; elles, else; ge, and; gea, gese, yea, yes; gif, if; húru, at least, yet; hwät, lo, truly; hwädher, whether; ne, not; ná, nó, nese, not, nay, no; nu, now; odhdhe, or; swâ, so, as; swilce, as if; thät, that; theah, though; thonne, then, than; utan (with infin.), let us ;—for tham the, because; for thy, therefore; mid thy, since, seeing; to tham that, in order that; thy läs the, lest;-—ge .

ge, both . . and; ægdher ge ge, both . . . and;

hwädher the... the, whether

. nor; odhdhe.

sam, whether

or; nádher ne odhdhe, either

SEMI-SAXON INFLEXION.

§ 101. For the sake of convenience, A. will be used for the earlier text of Layamon, B. for the later, and O. for the Ormulum. It is proposed to represent chiefly the inflexion of A. in its characteristic features, adding at the same time the principal variations of B. and O.

§ 102. The Semi-Saxon retains in A. the AngloSaxon characters for the two sounds of the English th : we represent them, as before, by th and dh. B. and O. have only the character for th. For the consonant