of international law and agreed forms of cooperation in ocean space; that is, the high seas and the seabeds and subsoil beyond the limits of coastal State jurisdiction over Continental Shelves.

The vital potential importance of living and nonliving marine resources to the accelerating human census in the years ahead has only recently come into clearer focus. Covering more than 70 percent of the earth's surface, the oceans of the world are estimated to contain 80 percent of all planetary animal life. Recent U.S. Government testimony indicates that the 60 million tons of food now taken from the oceans annually could be multiplied three or four times without depletion of stock by utilization of sound conservation measures. Oil extraction from the Continental Shelves and slopes, now yielding an estimated 15 percent of total non-Communist world output, will account for more than double that percentage by 1980. Ocean metal extraction, now minimal, may provide a majority of the world's consumption of selected metals within the next 20 to 50 years according to certain industrial estimates. The prospects are bright for new and greater ocean uses in the next three decades; for example, for desalinization, for new shipping routes made possible by larger and more powerful carriers, and for achieving methods of environmental modification which will facilitate other ocean uses and protect and enhance certain land interests.

But the potential obstacles to the full realization of the oceans' common legacy for mankind have also grown apace. In many areas, some illustrated below, resources misuse and conflict are threatened and there is a demonstrable need for extension of international law and for new forms of cooperation.

Food.-Existing multilateral and bilateral agreements relating to ocean space fishing and conservation of living marine resources, useful as they are, cover only a small part of the actual or potential catch from the world's fisheries. Only a minority of coastal nations are parties to such agreements. Depletion of certain fish stocks have occurred and disputes have arisen where no recognized sanctions or redress exist. The food and dietary needs, particularly for fish protein, projected for a doubled world population by A.D. 2000, make new and expanded forms of international accords mandatory to realize essential ocean food yields. Military. The oceans, already the home of a substantial proportion of United States and Soviet strategic nuclear deterrent forces, are widen open for other actual and planned military uses. Current efforts to ban implacement on the seabeds of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction, though highly significant, cover only a small fraction of military uses already in place or on the drawing boards for which detection technology presently provides only partial promise of control. The oceans continue to be used as dumping grounds for obsolete and obsolescent war material, including poison gas containers. In most of these cases of actual and intended uses scant consideration, if any, has been given to environmental consequences.

Pollution. Although concern about ecological problems has become widespread, marine pollution continues to increase far faster than control technology or practice. The effluents of municipal sewage, industrial waste, detergent phosphates runoff, offshore dumping, boat waste discharge, and many other practices all contribute to the increasing pollution of internal, territorial and international waters. (Almost 10 percent of all U.S. shell-fishing grounds have been declared unsafe for human consumption). The danger of oil spills like the recent disastrous one off Santa Barbara is rising according to a recent statement of the Under Secretary of the Interior because increased demand and improved technology have intensified offshore drilling and production by more than 10 percent per year and permitted exploitation in ever deeper waters. The increasing use of super tankers and planned tanker use in arctic areas of delicate ecological balance have increased the chances of accidents even more damaging than the Torrey Canyon. Some feel that the largest pollution problem relates to the subtitle changes in ocean chemistry worldwide resulting from increased carbon dioxide content in the air, DDT run-offs, trace-elements from fossil fuels, and so forth. While others dispute these views most would agree that such practices need searching international examination.

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But as the 1969 report of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources declares, beyond state jurisdiction “. . . there are now no water quality standards and few programs for pollution control." Obviously pollution has increasing international impact, but international understanding and agreement about what to do about it are almost totally lacking.

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Nonliving resources.-Offshore production of oil and selected minerals is climbing spectacularly. Now confined largely to depths of a few hundred feet, oil exploratory drilling has occurred in depths over 1300 feet and is predicted in the next 5 years at 4,000-6,000 foot depths, where coring has already taken place. Commercially profitable recovery of oil and other mineral deposits will clearly become feasible soon in marine areas whose control is disputed or which lie well beyond any accepted area of national jurisdiction. There is no commonly accepted, precise limit of coastal state sovereignty over continental shelves today. Commercial interests seeking to recover mineral wealth from outer shelf or deep ocean areas or midocean rises have few reliable safeguards for their investment. No laws governing national or individual activity have undisputed jurisdiction in these zones. Applications have been made to the U.N. for licenses in such instances but the world organization has had to enter jurisdictional disclaimer. Even if technology minimizes pollution hazards, the utilization of such resources for the benefit of man must proceed at its peril today because of lack of applicable law.

Scientific research. The seventies have been declared by the United Nations to be in the International Decade of Ocean Exploration, and national efforts to conduct scientific marine research promise to reach the new highs during the period. Existing international conventions on the seas are almost completely silent on research activities, including research relating to living and nonliving marine resources. Many experts in the field have urged new efforts to provide explicit safeguards for iternational research in ocean space, although recognizing the hard distinctions between pure science research and research with military and/or commercial benefits. The issue is not moot because coastal States are closing increasing areas to research vessels of other nations without special permits, and such permits are becoming progressively harder to obtain.

Shipping. Dramatic improvements in ship design, size, and power and cargo handling have opened vistas of new firsts in ocean routing, and bulk commerce records. Alternative approaches will need to be explored by the international community to shape institutional frameworks appropriate to the evolving role of the shipping industry whose ownership and activities will increasingly transcend national controls.

Legal issues.-Common in some degree to all of the areas cited above are unresolved legal issues relating to the extent and measurement of state sovereignty and control over adjacent marine areas for different purposes. With a third International Law of the Sea Conference probably to be scheduled soon, examples of such issues abound. Research is needed to help arrive at fair and commonly accepted standards for. for example, the use of straight baselines to divide internal and territorial waters, actual and threatened "historic waters" claims, special problems of islands and straits, procedures for resolving ocean use and measurement disputes, analysis and improvement of proposed regimes to govern the future uses of the seas, and problems of monitoring and verification of proposed agreements and questions arising from the lack of universality of ratification of or adherence to such agreements.

The trustees are aware of the explosion of knowledge about the oceans that has occurred in recent years and cognizant of the many excellent studies-scientific, technical, geographic, legal and other-which have been done on each of the above cited subjects. But those most expert in the field have been the first to advocate the urgent need for intensive additional research.

The studies which the Board desires to stimulate at the Center would attempt to build on and not duplicate existing knowledge. The objective would be to concentrate primary attention, as suggested by the questions on the attached list, on analysis of the existing state of knowledge and its use insofar as it relates to broad understanding of rational and cooperative uses of ocean space, the legal and institutional deficiencies of such uses, and the development of suggestions for improvements in these areas.

The Board hopes that several fellowships and a few positions in the guest scholar program will be filled in the opening period at the Center with persons from different nations, disciplines, and professions whose intellect, experience and dedication would enable them to contribute to the increase and diffusion of knowledge about the development of international law and cooperation in ocean space. The Board feels that the subject is peculiarly "Wilsonian" in nature and timely and appropriate for sustained, advanced studies at the Center.

The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars was created by Congress in 1968 to be “. . . a living institution expressing the ideals and concerns of

Woodrow Wilson ... symbolizing and strengthening the fruitful relation between the world of learning and the world of public affairs." The Center was placed in the Smithsonian Institution under the administration of a Presidential Board of Trustees, subsequently appointed by President Johnson and President Nixon. Former Vice President Humphrey was designated Chairman of the Board.

What are the patterns and limitations of the flow of information about ocean space within and between nations? How might the dissemination of information be improved to increase understanding of and response to ocean space problems? What are the present limits and gaps in coverage of international agreements about the use of ocean space which most threaten conflict or misuse of marine life and resources in coming years?

What are the principal institutional deficiencies on the national and international scene that need to be addressed in the years to insure increasing ocean space use in the best interests of mankind, and "how do we get there from here?"—that is, what are the capabilities and limitations of existing agreements and institutions? Can they be modified or extended? What sequence of action would be most likely to yield results?

What are the principal political, social, and economic factors and trends ʊuperating for and against rational extension of accord and cooperation in ocean space in the U.N., in big States and small, in coastal States with primary interest in distant or in adjacent waters, and in various concerned industries, and how may affirmative features be strengthened and fair understandings promoted? How can the growing gap between the few with capability to explore and exploit ocean space and the many without such means be ameliorated?

B.

ENVIRONMENT-CONNECTED STUDIES—WOODROW WILSON INTERNATIONAL CENTER

FOR SCHOLARS

The trustees of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars have designated for special encouragement studies of 20th-century man in perspective, including the implications of social biology and the deteriorating physical and psychological environment that accompanies the ever-accelerating growth in population. Different aspects of these issues are at last receiving increasing attention in the United States and elsewhere. The President of the United States has expressed his intention to commit resources to an invesigation of the factors that affect the quality of life. A United Nations Conference on Human Environment will be convened in 1972.

Many research centers are well equipped to study man as a machine, and technical environmental studies are relatively plentiful. The Center intends to focus on studies relating to the kinds of attitudinal and institutional changes that are called for if environmental deterioration is to be halted, and on ways in which such changes as are indicated may be brought about. Particular attention will be given to new forms of international cooperation needed if those problems that transcend national boundaries are to be addressed effectively.

It is no longer news that the balance between man and his physical environment is dangerously upset as a result of the pollution of air and water, the poisoning of soils, the rape of natural resources and open spaces, and countless other depredations. It has not escaped notice that the quality of human life is deteriorating in many ways, in part because of these depredations and in part because of those factors that give rise to them in the first place: A technology that, for all its boons, tends to create its own set of often destructive imperatives; a population growing by such leaps and bounds that existing institutions, never wholly responsive to human needs, are growing ever less so under the overload; a body of attitudes favoring the primacy of economic considerations and values. and inimical to the development of humane mechanisms for planning and social control and, of course, sheer indifference.

No effective action is possible without prior understanding. Consequently, there is a need for systematic investigations of just how and why these forces and others operate and interact in different societies. The problems of highly urbanized nations with advanced technologies, where the emphasis must, in the first instance, be on remedial action, are clearly different from those of the developing countries, where there may still be time for preventive action. Attitudes and levers of change are obviously different in countries with democratic traditions and/or relatively unregulated economies, and nations in which political power is centrally held and economic activity is strictly controlled. At the same time, since no society is left untouched by the pressures of urbanization, technological development, and population growth, and the environmental decay

that seems at present to be their inevitable byproduct touches them all, there is a need to study the commonalities that transcend national and societal differences. The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars has no wish to duplicate work being done elsewhere on these and related issues; nor could any one center hope to study the many problems that cry out for investigation. The topics listed below are among those that have been suggested for early attention by the Center. They are by no means definitive and are presented merely to indicate the kinds of issues that might fruitfully be studied. (Suggestions for studies relevant to the general area of concern are invited.)

The question of information flow on environmental issues, with particular attention to the kinds of inter- and intra-national mechanisms needed for the more effective collection, exchange, and use of information on existing efforts of environmental control.

An investigation of existing legal sanctions, in this country and others, for the regulation of environment, including an examination of both the machinery of enforcement and the factors that inhibit enforcement.

An examination of existing incentives to industries to control or transform waste products, as well as consideration of possible new incentives and how they might be developed, implemented, and audited.

A consideration of the conflicts between the guiding principles of economic theory and ecological precepts, with a view to developing, if possible, a mutually compatible body of thought that incorporates elements of both disciplines.

A study of the ecological implications of present practices in aid to developing nations, taking special account of the natural conflict between economic and social considerations and sound ecological practices.

A consideration of the implications of a rapidly growing population on democratic processes, with particular attention to the kinds of mechanisms needed to safeguard popular participation in decisionmaking at various levels of government.

The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars intends to foster a thoroughly interdisciplinary and interoccupational approach to the studies undertaken under its auspices. Clearly, no one discipline or set of disciplines can be said to hold the key to the crucial questions affecting human survival. The shared expertise and insights of many different specialists-humanists and philosophers as well as social and natural scientists, lawyers and demographers, technologists and practical men of affairs-are needed in order to develop a body of knowledge that will truly illuminate the issues and point the way to solutions.

Mr. HUMPHREY. First, I want to express my thanks for what I know has been an inconvenience on your part in receiving me today and permitting me to talk to the subcommittee.

I am going to discuss with you the Woodrow Wilson International Center, which was established by an act of Congress on a totally bipartisan basis as a living memorial to a former President.

By the way, I can't help but note, this morning on one of the TV shows they were talking about the Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial and the argument that had been going on for a number of years. Then they showed the pictures of these slabs that have been proposed from time to time. If I may say most respectfully, I think a living memorial like the one established for Woodrow Wilson, where you deal with people and where you have something going that relates to today and tomorrow, is even more appropriate. I don't mean that as a criticism of anything else, but I think this has so much to offer.

In the time available this morning, I would like to highlight and expand briefly on the major points in the detailed statement on the Woodrow Wilson International Center's proposed programs and plans that I have submitted.

I am going to make available for your record and to you individually, if you will permit me to, a very detailed account of what we have tried to do thus far.

We have been at this work of the Center for a little over a year now.

LIVING MEMORIALS

First, let me applaud the congressional move toward presidential "living memorials," as exemplified by both the Woodrow Wilson Memorial Act of 1968 and the $5 million appropriation for Eisenhower College in Seneca, N.Y., in the same year. It seems to me far more fitting to memorialize our Presidents by means of living institutions that serve to perpetuate their memories by serving man's current needs rather than by erecting statues in cold bronze or marble.

The Board and staff-the Board of Trustees made up of 15 members, eight in private life and seven from the governmental structurethe Board and our staff have worked hard in the past year to fashion in honor of our 28th President an institution that will reflect his spirit and do honor to his memory as well as serve a vital contemporary purpose in a manner consonant with the generous charter provided by the Congress. The charter, I would remind you, contained two substantive guidelines which declared that the Center should be a living institution: first, "expressing the ideals and concerns of Woodrow Wilson," and second, "symbolizing and strengthening the fruitful relation between the world of learning and the world of public affairs."

The nature of the international fellowship and guest scholar programs we have designed for the Center are described in detail in my statement. Suffice it here to say that the theme we chose for the fellowship program is designed to accentuate those aspects of Wilson's ideals and concerns for which he is perhaps best known a half century after his presidency-his search for international peace and the imaginative new approaches he used to meet the pressing issues of his day-translated into current terms.

I think I should note at this point that in developing the program we have received counsel and advice as to the nature of this program from people all over the world and all over the United States in preparation for what we might do, because we had to start at baseline zero. We wrote to several hundred leaders in universities, in governments, in labor, in business and in just about every conceivable aspect of our cultural, social, political, and economic life, both at home and abroad. We received several hundred marvelous communications in depth from outstanding people worldwide and from every State in the Union, giving us suggestions as to what we might do that would make a fitting living memorial to Woodrow Wilson under the terms of the charter granted by the Congress. So, we didn't start off with the preconceived notion on our own. We outlined what the Congress had authorized. We asked for advice and counsel. We went, as I said, to people from many different walks of life. This volume is a compilation of some of the letters we have received from all over the world. As I said, people in every State in the Union have had a role in the process.

THEME AND SPECIAL STUDY AREAS

A wide variety of studies of significant international, governmental and social problems will be welcome under the general theme adopted by the trustees, as set forth on page 4 of my statement. In addition, the Board has selected two subjects on which it would like to see substantial studies undertaken and proposals developed during the opening period at the Center.