instances quoted-Control exercised by the State over Buddhist incar- nations, cases cited from Gazette-Intellectual condition of a people which sees no clear distinction between the unseen and the visible world, between gods and men-Danger of too close connection between ON THE FORMATION OF SOME CLANS AND CASTES IN INDIA. Early history of nations runs back to a tribal period-Reference to this period in European history-The Native States of Central India, which have been left outside the great empires of India, are still in the state of tribal formation-Description of this state of society, no nation- alities, the people are classed in clans and sects, by kinship or worship -Examples of grouping by consanguinity and by Religion-Descrip- tion of the structure and development of a consanguineous group- Circles of affinity-Connection between lowest and highest groups, Non-Aryan tribes, predatory tribes, half blood and pure blood clans- Influence on a clan of the original founder or leader-Effect upon social formations of religious ideas, rise of sects, and their transition into castes-Narrowing of circle of affinity-Possible connection of Political institutions of Rajpútána preserved by the English-Description of the country called Rajpútána, its boundaries, and the States which it includes-Origin and development of Rajpút States and the domi- nant clans-Brief retrospect of their history during the time of the Moghal empire; connection of the ruling families with the Emperors -Effect on Rajpútána of period of anarchy during 18th century when the empire collapsed-The States rescued from destruction by the English Government-Extinction of predatory rights by Lord Hastings, and his establishment of permanent peace-Examination of the constitution of a Rajpút State and of the nature of its organiz- ation: the Chief is the head of a clan, and the descendant of the State's founder-Rules of succession to chiefship and customary practice of selection; the hereditary right subject to condition of fitness-Policy of English Government in disputed cases-Subordinate chiefs and landholders, чteir rights and obligations-Tenures not feudal, but according to tribal usages and privileges of kinship-Primogeniture― Dr. Hunter's literary skill and success as a writer on India-Reference to Mahomedan grievances as stated by Dr. Hunter in his "Indian Musal- màns," and by Colonel Lees in a pamphlet-Remarks and criticisms upon these statements, and upon the real position and feelings of Indian Mahomedans-Brief historical retrospect of our relations with the Mahomedans, and of the cause of events leading up to the existing situation, in which the English have succeeded to the political supre- macy over India relinquished by the Mahomedans-Question whether religious texts or rulings have much practical effect on the acts or attitude of Mahomedans-Observations upon the inevitable anomalies and difficulties surrounding English government in India-Same dis- content and disappointment among Mahomedans unavoidable—Syud Ahmed's polemical controversy with Sir William Muir-Unpopularity of Wahabis among Mahomedans-The educational policy of the Indian Government, how far it actually deserves the imputation of formidable errors and grievances-Examination of specific charges; nature and effect often exaggerated-Explanation of our general policy; the substantial complaints against it mainly founded on incidents inse- parable from the situation; to be remedied by time, goodwill, steady and impartial administration, and the general spread of our civilizing 228 Difficulty of position of the British Government in India, in regard to the numerous creeds and sects; and to the widely different phases of religious opinion in Europe and in Asia-Brief sketch of the early policy of toleration adopted by the English in India, disregard shown for political reasons to native Christians; careful performance of State ceremonial towards Hindu worships-Gradual effect of missionary pro- tests against connexion of English Government with the religions of the country; withdrawal of Government from superintendence of endowments; counter protests of natives against total withdrawal ; course and tendency of legislation on the subject; effect upon it of the mutiny-Grievances of the Mahomedans as put forward by Eng- lish writers; criticism of their views-Suggestions as to the proper CHAPTER XI. THE RELIGIOUS SITUATION IN INDIA. The striking appearance presented by the religious aspect of India as a PAGE 287 ASIATIC STUDIES: RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL. CHAPTER I. RELIGION OF AN INDIAN PROVINCE. The actual religious condition of India, with its extraordinary variety of rites and worships, exemplifies the state of the civilized world in the ages of classic polytheism, before Christianity or Islam had arisen-A brief account of the religious beliefs in one province, Berar, may serve as a sample of Hinduism— Constant growth, movement, and change, of religious forms and conceptions -Classification, suggesting successive development, of the prevailing beliefs and liturgies, worship of things inanimate, of animals, of spirits, of ghosts, of divine incarnations, of the supreme Brahmanic gods-Some description of each class, with their connexion and the gradual evolution of deities from ancestral spirits, saints, heroes, and demi-gods—Successful wonder-working the selecting agency whereby this evolution is carried on; and the system of divine embodiment often the process of transmutation into and assimilation with the higher deities of Brahmanism-Probability that the existing state of Hinduism will not last long. THE general form and complexion of Hinduism is familiar enough to those who take interest in the subject of Asiatic religions. Many persons know that the Hindus are divided, as to their theology, into various sects, schools, and orders that their orthodox Brahmanical doctrines express an esoteric Pantheism by an exoteric Polytheism; and that the mass of the people worship innumerable gods with endless diversity of ritual. A few students of India in England know a great deal more than this; but I doubt whether any one who has not lived among Hindus can adequately realise the astonishing variety of their ordinary religious beliefs, the constant changes of shape and colour which these beliefs undergo, the extraor دو B dinary fecundity of the superstitious sentiment-in short, the scope, range, depth, and height of religious ideas and practices prevailing simultaneously among the population of one country, or of one not very extensive province. It is not easy, indeed, for Europeans of this century to realise the condition even of a great continent in which there are no nationalities; or to perceive how in a mere loose conglomeration of tribes, races, and castes the notion of religious unity, or even of common consent by a people as to the fundamental bases of worship, can hardly be comprehended, much less entertained. For nationality is, as we know, a thing of modern growth; when Charlemagne restored the Western Empire, he swept within its pale not nations but tribes-Franks and Saxons, Lombards and Gauls-just as we have subdued and now rule, in India, Sikhs, Pathâns, Rajpûts, and Marathas. It is therefore, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organised and executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy Roman Empire and the Church Catholic. From this Asiatic standpoint, looking down upon a tangled jungle of disorderly superstitions, upon ghosts and demons, demigods, and deified saints; upon household gods, tribal gods, local gods, universal gods; with their countless shrines and temples, and the din of their discordant rites; upon deities who abhor a fly's death, upon those who delight still in human victims, and upon those who would not either sacrifice or make offering -looking down upon such a religious chaos, throughout a vast region never subdued or levelled (like all Western Asia) by Mahomedan or Christian monotheism, we realise the huge enterprise undertaken by those who first set forth to establish one Faith for all mankind, and an universal Church on earth. We perceive more clearly what classic polytheism was by real ising what Hinduism actually is. We have been so much habituated in Europe to associate any great historic religion with the idea of a Church (if not in its mediæval sense, then in the sense of a congregation of the faithful), that most of us assign this kind of settled character and organic form to |