in consequence of the destruction of the villages around Winchester, were made houseless. Whether William intrusted this castle to the keeping of Ranulf of Meschines, whom, according to spurious traditions, the Conqueror is said to have already placed at Carlisle, or whether this appointment only took place under his successor, must remain undecided. It is, however, of importance here to notice, that William Rufus, and not his father, first made Cumberland a complete province of Norman England.

In this Normanizing, as it were, of Cumberland the English king had left unheeded the rights and claims which the Scottish monarchs had till then possessed over that county. For the adjustment of the complaints preferred by Malcolm, that prince accepted the invitation of William, after the delivery of hostages, and accompanied by Eadgar Ætheling, to attend the court at Gloucester. He arrived there on the 8th of August, but William refused to see his royal vassal until, according to the judgment of the Norman barons, he would consent to "do him right." This Malcolm refused to do, contending, that by ancient custom he was not bound to "do right” to the king of England, except on the frontiers of the two kingdoms, and by judgment of the nobility of both'. Without having been admitted to the presence of William, But if we remark that Matthew represents Ranulf as earl of Carlisle, which city the Conqueror then ordered to be fortified, and that, having deprived Ranulf of Carlisle, he gave him the earldom of Chester (which is known to have been held by Hugh of Avranches), it seems highly probable that the above-mentioned chronicler has confounded the seizure of the fortress of Carlisle by William Rufus, and its fortifying under Henry I. in 1122, and the appointment of the viscount of Bayeux, Ranulf, as earl of Chester in 1122, with the events of 1072, in consequence possibly of one of those frequent clerical errors of C for L (MLXXII for MCXXII). [This year (1092) a considerable part of London was destroyed by fire. Flor. Wigorn.-T.]

Sax. Chron. Flor. Wigorn. a. 1093. The precise meaning of the expression "rectitudinem facere" seems far from certain. Lingard understands by it "to answer for any alleged failure in the performance of feudal services." Allen (Vindication, p. 48) leaves it unexplained.-T.

Malcolm in indignation left the English court, collected a large army in his own kingdom, and burst into England. Scarcely, however, had he advanced as far as Alnwick when, in an ambuscade laid for him by Robert of Moubray, earl of Northumberland, he was treacherously slain by a pretended deserter, who feigned to deliver to him the keys of that castle (13th Nov. 1093). With him also perished, in the confusion which ensued, his eldest son, Edward'. The death of both these princes by treachery was lamented and blamed even by their adversaries. The name of Morel of Bamborough, the nephew and steward of earl Robert, and by spiritual ties connected with Malcolm, is preserved as that of the perpetrator. The good queen Margaret, the AngloSaxon, Malcolm's consort, died shortly after of grief, and his brother, Dufenald (Donald Bane) expelled all the English employed in the court from his kingdom. Duncan, an illegitimate son of Malcolm, who was at that time residing as a hostage at the English court, having been knighted by William and sworn to him the fealty required, was by that prince enabled to proceed to Scotland with a considerable body of Anglo-Saxons and French, and succeeded in expelling his uncle from that kingdom, which William might now flatter himself with having reduced to the condition of a Norman province. But those short-sighted supporters of the young king, the foreign knights who had accompanied him, excited so much discontent among the people, that they were nearly all slain by them, and Duncan himself was permitted to remain. on the throne only under the promise that he would bring no more Anglo-Saxons nor Normans into the kingdom. But Duncan could not wholly detach himself from the Norman court, and in the following year was slain by the Scots, and Donald replaced on the throne3. A few years after, William, availing himself of a favourable juncture, sent Eadgar Æthel

Sax. Chron. Flor. Wigorn. a. 1093. 2 Sim. Dunelm. a. 1093.

Forduni Scoti-Chron. v. 20. 3 Ibid. a. 1094.

ing with an army into Scotland, who having expelled Donald, who was subsequently captured and died of grief in prison, caused Eadgar, a third son of Malcolm, to be crowned king in vassalage to the English monarch1.

After these advances in the northern parts of his kingdom, the wish must naturally be excited in the mind of William to reduce the Welsh also completely under the yoke of his domination. No disquietude in the interior of the realm, no war on the other frontier ever took place of which the Welsh did not avail themselves for the purpose of assailing the Normans. During Odo's rebellion, Robert of Rhuddlan had been recalled to his march, in consequence of the inroads of the North Welsh into the earldom of Chester, under their king Griffith ap Conan. Too great precipitation, however, led the ardent warrior unarmed into the proximity of his foes, by whose missiles he perished 2. Through his death the Welsh enjoyed some repose on their border, though internal dissensions soon arose. Llewelyn and Eineon from Dyfed had excited Jestyn ap Gurgant, lord of Morgannwg, to rise in arms against Rhys ap Tewdor, king of South Wales, and invited Robert fitz Hamon and twelve other Norman knights, by tempting promises, to their aid. King Rhys fell, by the treachery of his people, in a battle near Brecknock, and in him perished the last king of South Wales of the ancient royal stock 3. A considerable portion of the country then fell into the hands of Norman barons, though the old princely families were neither extirpated nor expelled, and were in general much more gently treated than the Anglo-Saxons of rank. The Normans left them, both then and afterwards, always a part of their old honours and revenues, as they were indispensable to them as mediators with a people of foreign tongue. Hence they strove gradually, by marriages of Nor

1 Sim. Dunelm. a. 1097. Ethelred. col. 344.

2 Ord. Vital. pp. 670, sq.

3 Flor. Wigorn. a. 1093. Giraldi Cambrens. Itin. lib. i. c. 12.

mans with Welsh heiresses, and other successive acquisitions, to bring every possession into the hands of the Norman aristocracy. Robert fitz Hamon retained the lordship of Glamorgan, and of the eighteen castles, thirty-six knight's fees, and other smaller lordships belonging to the greater one, distributed some among his companions in arms1. The lordship of Brecknock was conquered by Bernard of Neumarch, who, by his marriage with Nesta, of an ancient Welsh princely house, gained the good will of his new dependents. But his son, Mahael, did not succeed to his father's fief, his mother, through hatred, having denounced him to the king as unlawfully born. Henry of Newburgh, son of Robert of Beaumont, conquered the district of Gower. These acquisitions were not, however, cheaply bought; for, after the death of Rhys, the Welsh formed a combination against their false friends, demolished the castles that had been erected in West Wales, and made repeated destructive inroads into the counties of Chester, Hereford, and Salop. Even in Anglesey they succeeded in wresting from the Normans the castle and the power over the isle. And although Hugh of Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury, was able to annihilate some bands of Welsh, others still remained protected by the nature of the country, as well as by their skill in availing themselves of it; and king William, in the year 1095, believed it incumbent on him personally to undertake a campaign against the Welsh3.

Here again it was made manifest that against mountaineers it is seldom productive of glory to contend with a large force. After a great loss both of men and horses, the king made a speedy retreat. The Welsh, emboldened by this success as well as by the dissensions then prevailing among the Norman nobility, assaulted the castle of Montgomery and put Hugh's

For their names and acquisitions see the essay of Gryffith ap Conan prefixed to Powell's History of Wales.

2 Ord. Vital. p. 606. Giraldi Cambrens. Itin. lib. i. c. 2. 3 Sax. Chron. Flor. Wigorn. a. 1094.

garrison to the sword. This outrage embittered the king yet more, who, highly incensed, again marched against the Welsh after the Michaelmas festival, but only in the same year to be twice scorned and beaten by a little band of despised ancient Britons1. The incursions which the barons incessantly made on the border, though less discreditable, were unattended by any lasting results, and cost much blood and treasure. Cadogan, son of Blethyn, and nearly related to king Griffith, had brought the Welsh to a state of unity, which to a defensive warfare is indispensable, and, consequently, in the year 1097, they again succeeded, after a campaign of more than four months, in repelling king William Rufus. Instead, therefore, as he had promised, of massacreing every man in Wales, he discovered that the reduction of the country must be left solely to the guerilla warfare of the border barons, and accordingly sought to stimulate the noblest and bravest of his vassals, to the conquest of that country by the grant of districts on the border. Roger of Montgomery, consequently, did homage for Powys, where he had won the castle, afterwards from his family name, called Baldwin, so also for Cardigan; and his son, Arnulf, for Dyfed, where some years after he built the castle of Pembroke, at first of trunks of trees and earth-works; so Hugh of Lacy for the small district of Ewias; Eustace of St. Omer's and Ralph of Mortimer, (who, besides other rich possessions, had the castle of Wigmore; together with other knights of illustrious name) for other districts, which they were partly to defend partly to conquer3. Earl Hugh, after several years of exertion (a. 1098), recovered Anglesey, and exercised on his prisoners a more cruel vengeance than was usual even in those times; after the

1 Sax. Chron. Flor. Wigorn. a. 1095. The latter, as also Simeon of Durham, mention two campaigns by the king against the Welsh in 1095, the Saxon Chronicle one only.

2 Giraldi Cambrens. Itin. lib. i. c. 12.

3 Powell, p. 117, who in this section errs in the chronology only.