by Mr. F. W. Harmer to the Geological Society in 1901, which has not obtained the notice it deserves, it is pointed out how changes in the distribution of the prevalent winds would vastly alter climatic conditions. Like everything else in Nature, and especially in the department of meteorology, these questions are exceedingly complex, and similar results may be brought about in different ways, but there can be no doubt that the climate of South Africa would be greatly modified, and more rainfall would occur, if only the cyclonic storms which now chase each other to the eastward in the ocean south of the Cape of Good Hope could be prevailed upon to pursue a slightly more northerly line, and many obstacles to the agricultural prospects of South Africa now existing would be removed. This is, however, beyond the powers of man to effect; but, as I have just said, there are other ways of attaining the object, and it is earnestly to be hoped that the attention now being paid to afforestation may result in vigorous efforts to bring about by this means the improvement in humidity so much required in many parts of the country. The other recent event in geographical exploration is the result of the expedi tion to Lhasa. It was an unexpected solution of this long-desired knowledge that it should come from political necessities and by means of a Government mission. The many ardent travellers who have dreamed of one day making their way in by stealth have thus been disappointed, but our knowledge is now fuller than could otherwise have been gathered. The most important fact is the revelation of the fertility of a large part of Southern Tibet. Much has been added to topographical knowledge, but the route maps of the secret Indian native surveyors already had given us a rough knowledge of the country on the road to Lhasa. It was not, however, realised how great was the difference between the aridity of the vast regions of the north, known to us from the travels of men of various nationalities, and the better-watered area in the south, though from the great height of the plateau-some 12,000 feet-the climate is very severe. The upper course of the Brahmaputra has been traced by Captain Ryder, but, unfortunately, a political veto was placed on the project to solve the interesting problem of how this great river finds its way to the Indian plains, and this still remains for the future to unravel. Of the ocean, which has been my own particular study for many years, and on which alone I feel any special qualification to speak, I have said but little, for the reason that when presiding over this Section on a former occasion I took it for my theme, but there are a few points regarding it which I should like to bring to your notice. It is of the ocean, more than of any other physical feature of our globe, that our knowledge has increased of late years. Forty years ago we were profoundly ignorant even of its depth, with the exception of a few lines of soundings then recently taken for the first submarine telegraph cables, and consequently we knew nothing of its real vast bulk. As to the life in it, and the laws which govern the distribution of such life, we were similarly ignorant, as of many other details. The Challenger expedition changed all this, and gave an impetus to oceanographic research which has in the hands of all nations borne much fruit. Soundings have been obtained over all parts of the seas, even in the two polar seas; and though much remains to be done, we can now form a very close approximation to the amount of water on our earth, whilst the term 'unfathomable ocean' has been shown to have been based on an entire misconception. Biological research has also revealed a whole world of living forms at all depths of whose existence nothing was known before. In my former Address, eleven years ago, I gave many details about the sea, of which I will only repeat one-which is a fact that everyone should know-and that is, that the bulk of the ocean is about fourteen times as great as that of the dry land above water, and that if the whole of that land were thrown into the Atlantic Ocean it would only fill one-third of it. Eleven years ago the greatest depth known was 4,700 fathoms, or 28,000 feet. We have since found several places in the Pacific where the depth is nearly 5,170 fathoms, or 31,000 feet, or somewhat higher than Mount Everest, which has been lately definitely shown to be the culminating point of the Himalayas. These very deep parts of the ocean are invariably near land, and are apparently in the shape of troughs, and are probably due to the original crumpling of the earth's surface under slow contraction. The enormous area of the sea has a great effect upon climate, but not so much in the direct way formerly believed. While a mass of warm or cold water off a coast must to some extent modify temperature, a greater direct cause is the winds, which, however, are in many parts the effect of the distribution of warm and cold water in the ocean perhaps thousands of miles away. Take the United Kingdom, notoriously warm and damp for its position in latitude. This is due mainly to the prevalence of westerly winds. These winds, again, are part of cyclonic systems principally engendered off the coasts of Eastern North America and Newfoundland, where hot and cold sea-currents, impinging on one another, give rise to great variations of temperature and movements of the atmosphere which start cyclonic systems travelling eastwards. The centre of the majority of these systems passes north of Great Britain. Hence the warm and damp parts of them strike the country with westerly winds, which have also pushed the warm water left by the dying-out current of the Gulf Stream off Newfoundland across the Atlantic, and raise the temperature of the sea off Britain. When the cyclonic systems pass south of England, as they occasionally do, cold north-east and north winds are the result, chilling the country despite the warm water surrounding the islands. It only requires a rearrangement of the direction of the main Atlantic currents wholly to change the climate of Western Europe. Such an arrangement would be effected by the submergence of the Isthmus of Panama and adjacent country, allowing the Equatorial Current to pass into the Pacific. The gale factory of the Western Atlantic would then be greatly reduced. The area south of the Cape of Good Hope is another birthplace of great cyclonic systems, the warm Agulhas Current meeting colder water moving up from the Polar regions; but in the Southern Ocean the conditions of the distribution of land are different, and these systems sweep round and round the world, only catching and affecting the south part of Tasmania, New Zealand, and Patagonia. In 1894 I spoke of the movements of the lower strata of water in the sea as a subject on which we were only beginning to get a little light. Since that year we have learnt a little more. It is a common idea that at the bottom of the sea all is still; but this is a mistake, even for the deepest parts, for the tidal influence reaches to the bottom and keeps every particle in motion, though such motion is quiet and slow. Near the shore, however, though still in deep water, the movement may be considerably increased. Cases have occurred in late years where submarine cables have broken several hundred fathoms deep, and when picked up for repair it has been found that the iron wire covering has been literally rubbed away as by a file. This can only be the result of an undercurrent along the bottom moving the cable to and fro. Such a current might be caused by a submarine spring, for there is no doubt that much fresh water finds its way into the ocean in this fashion, but it is more probably generally an effect of acceleration of the tidal movement due to the rising slope of the continent. In connection with this, further facts have come to light in the course of recent marine surveys. Many isolated shoal spots in the great oceans have figured in our charts, the results of reports by passing ships who have said they have seen breakers in fine weather. Such places are the terror of seamen, and it is part of the duty of surveying ships to verify or disprove them. Very much has been done in the last eighteen years, with the result that the majority of them have, as dangers, disappeared. In many cases, however, a bank has been found, deep in the ordinary acceptation of the word, but much less deep than the surrounding sea-solitary ridges, in fact, rising from the ocean floor. Frequently, in examining these banks in search of shoaler spots, breakers have been reported and recognised as such on board the surveying ship from a distance, but on approach they have proved to be small overcurls caused by tide ripplings, and the depth of water has proved to be several hundred fathoms. These ripplings are clearly caused by the small tidal motion in the deep water, generally in these cases of over 2,000 fathoms, meeting the slope of the submerged mountain range, being concentrated and accelerated until the water finally flows up the top of the slope as a definite current, and taking the line of least resistance, that to the surface, makes itself visible in the shape which we are accustomed to associate with comparatively shallow water. These cases form remarkable instances of the manner in which extensive motion of water may arise from very small beginnings. An observation I was anxious to make in 1894 has been successfully carried out since. This was to ascertain whether there was any permanent undercurrent in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb due to more water being forced through the strait on the surface by the persistent S.E. wind of winter than could be evaporated in the closed Red Sea. Such return undercurrents have under somewhat similar circumstances been shown to exist in the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, and in the Suez Canal. The observation at Bab-el-Mandeb was difficult. The wind is strong and the disturbance of the sea is considerable, while the water is 120 fathoms or 700 feet deep. But a surveying vessel maintained herself at anchor there during four days, and, by the aid of an ingenious apparatus sent from England for the purpose, clearly proved the existence of a current of 13 knot flowing steadily at depths below 70 fathoms out of the Red Sea, whilst in the upper strata there was a similar current flowing in. In such ways is interchange of water provided for by Nature in places where tidal action does not suffice. In what I fear is a very discursive Address I have not mentioned the interior of Africa. In the first place, it is a subject of itself; and as we shall have, I hope, many papers on African subjects I have thought it better to deal mainly with generalities. Still I cannot refrain from a few words to express the astonishment I always feel when I hear people complain that Africa goes slow. When I look at what has been effected in my own lifetime, it appears to me that, on the contrary, it has been rushed. The maps I learnt from as a boy showed the whole interior as a blank. There are now no parts that are not more or less known. The great lakes have all been revealed; the great rivers have all been traced; Europeans are now firmly fixed with decent governments in parts formerly a prey to tribal wars and the atrocities of the inland slave traffic. Railways are running over regions unknown forty years ago, and one of the most astonishing things to me is that I should be able to hope now to visit in comfort and luxury the great Victoria Falls which my old friend Sir John Kirk-whom I left the other day hale and heartywas, with the exception of Livingstone, the first white man to see, after a long and laborious journey in his company in 1860. I could not help being amused as well as interested at seeing a short time ago a proclamation by the Government of Northern Rhodesia, dated not far from Lake Bangweolo, calling on all concerned to observe neutrality during the present war between Russia and Japan. I think that if anyone had prophesied to Livingstone, as he lay in 1873 lonely and dying by the shores of that newly discovered lake, that such an edict would be issued in thirty years he would have expressed a doubt as to its fulfilment. To Southern Africa Nature has denied two of the features that facilitate rapid progress-good harbours and sufficient rainfall-but the energy of man has done wonders to provide the former where possible, and will doubtless do more; whilst I believe that the lack of the latter will also be overcome in the same way. The co-ordinated-or, in other words, the scientific-observations made in many other countries have pointed out a possible solution. On the other hand, the height of the inland plateaux makes it possible for the white man to live and work in latitudes which would under other conditions be tropical. South Africa must have a great future before it; and while some present circumstances may delay development of its natural advantages, I am inclined to think that in the long run prosperity may be more solid and material for being made in the face of difficulties, as has so often occurred in the history of the world. The following Papers were read : 1. A Short Description of the British Ordnance Survey, and some Advantages to be gained from a Topographical Survey of South Africa. By Colonel D. A. JOHNSTON, C.B. 2. British National Antarctic Expedition with the Discovery.' THURSDAY, AUGUST 17. Joint Meeting with Section C.-See page 393. FRIDAY, AUGUST 18. The following Papers were read :— 1. The Unveiling of the Coast of Africa. By H. YULE OLDHAM. 2. The Visit of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition to Diego Alvarez, or Gough Island. By R. N. RUDMOSE BROWN. This volcanic island, it was pointed out, was some 1,500 miles west by south from Cape Town. It was eight miles by four, bordered by steep cliffs 200 to 1,000 feet high, the land rising more gradually, with picturesque ridges and valleys, to 4,380 feet. The rainfall was great, and the streams formed fine waterfalls where they fell over the sea cliffs. One or two valleys had been cut down to sea-level, and formed the most convenient landing-places. Owing to the stormy seas landing was difficult. The vegetation was abundant, and the Scottish expedition discovered three new species of plants, two new buntings, and a rich marine fauna. The further exploration of the island was much to be desired, and should be undertaken from Cape Town. 3. The Indigenous Forests of South Africa.3 By E. HUTCHINS. The forests of South Africa may be divided broadly into three classes: (1) The dense evergreen indigenous forest of which yellowwood is the chief species, and 1 Published in full in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, January 1906. which is commonly known as the yellowwood forest. (2) Open timber forest. This generally occupies drier country than the yellow forest, and is forest of an inferior type, though it may contain trees of the first importance, such as the cedar forest of Clanwilliam and the Rhodesian teak (Afzelia cunanzensis) forest of Wankie. (3) The scrub forests of the dry, hot, coast lands, and portions of the interior where the rainfall is scanty and uncertain. There is no timber of large size in the scrub forests, and not much large timber in the open timber forests: the most notable is the cedar forest north of Cape Town, comprising an area of 116,000 acres. Leaving the western coast and its cedar forests the dense yellowwood forest is met as soon as the southern coast is reached. The indigenous yellow wood forest of South Africa is seen at its best in the form of dense evergreen woods disposed roughly in two stories. The lower story is formed by stinkwood, assegai, hard pear, ironwood, &c., and the upper story by the big yellowwood trees. These yellowwood trees attain the stature and dimensions of the largest oak trees of Europe. This forest stretches in a more or less broken belt along the coast mountains from Table Mountain to the north-east of the Transvaal. The area of the yellowwood forest in Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal amounts to about 524,408 acres. Across the Limpopo, in Rhodesia, the forest is at a lower altitude and of quite another type. Most of the Rhodesian trees are leaf-shedding, and practically all of the species are different from those in the yellowwood forest. This sudden change in the character of the forest is remarkable. In the north-east Transvaal, on the Woodbush Range, essentially the same forest as at Knysna is seen, and only a few species are changed in the long stretch of 1,200 miles from Cape Town to the north-east Transvaal. The climate remains much the same, altitude compensating altitude. Beautiful though the indigenous yellowwood forest of South Africa is, its present economic value is not high, mainly owing to its poor stocking. The average yearly production of timber throughout the forest has been variably estimated at from 6 to 12 cubic feet per acre. Probably 10 cubic feet might be taken as a safe average figure. It is the work of the South African forester to improve the stocking of the indigenous forests with the native trees by cuttings arranged to favour natural reproduction, and at the same time to enrich the forest by the introduction of the best of the nnmerous valuable timber trees which are to be found in the extra-tropical forests of other countries. Of such trees the author cited particularly Cedrela australis, the premier timber tree of the Australian forests, and Sequoia sempervirens, the finest timber tree of California, and probably of the world. Other two trees which are doing well as planted trees are blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and the camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora). Blackwood spreads rapidly with self-sown seedlings, and has a timber like walnut. It is hoped that these trees, introduced into the glades and artificial openings in the forest, will gradually spread themselves into the poorly stocked areas around and greatly increase the present low value of the indigenous timber forest of South Africa. 4. The Climatology of South Africa. By CHARLES STEWART, B.Sc. The author said that South Africa consists essentially of a series of four plateaux, increasing in elevation from south to the interior: (1) Coast Plateau, (2) Southern or Little Karroo, (3) Central or Great Karroo, (4) Northern Karroo, or, more properly, the High Veld. These plateaux were most distinctly marked in a section from north to south through the centre of the country, but were not so apparent in the east and west, where they were reduced to mere terraces. Temperature. One of the most remarkable features in connection with temperature was the great uniformity in mean annual temperature shown by stations differing widely as regards latitude and longitude; e.g., Royal Observatory, Cradock, Bloemfontein, and Johannesburg had practically the same mean temperature of about 62° F. This was due to decrease of temperature with increase of elevation above sea-level, almost neutralising the increase of temperature which would |