tinuing basis-the service fee is $11 per hour and a minmuim fee of $88 is charged. A cost estimate is provided in advance.

The Division also provides free referral service through its National Referral Center for Science and Technology by directing those who have a question concerning a particular subject to organizations or individuals that can provide the answer.

Requests should be directed to (for reference services) the Science and Technology Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540. Phone,

Chairman

202-426-5674; (referral services) National Referral Center for Science and Technology, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540. Phone, 202426-5687.

For further information, contact the Information Office, Library of Congress, 10 First Street SE., Washington, D.C. 20540. Phone, 202-426-5108.

Approved.

L. QUINCY MUMFORD, Librarian of Congress.

Member

Member

Member

Member

ELMER B. STAATS. HERMAN W. BEVIS.

CHARLES A. DANA.

ROBERT K. MAUTZ. ROBERT C. MOOT.

CREATION AND AUTHORITY.-Article III, section 1, of the Constitution of the United States provides that "the judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." The Supreme Court of the United States was created in accordance with this provision and by authority of the Judiciary Act of September 24, 1789 (1 Stat. 73). It was organized on February 2, 1790.

ORGANIZATION.—The Supreme Court comprises the Chief Justice of the United States and such number of Associate Justices as may be fixed by Congress. Under that authority, and by virtue of the act of June 25, 1948 (62 Stat. 869; 28 U. S. C. 1), the number of Associate Justices is eight. Power to nominate the Justices is vested in the

E. ROBERT Seaver.
EDMUND P. CULLINAN.
MICHAEL RODak, Jr.
W. M. ALLISON.
T. PERRY LIppitt.
HENRY PUTZEL, JR.

H. CHARLES HALLAM, JR.

President of the United States, and appointments are made by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Article III, section 1, of the Constitution further provides that "the Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office." A Justice may, if he so desires, retire at the age of 70, after serving for 10 years as a Federal judge or at age 65 after 15 years of service.

The officers of the Supreme Court are the clerk, the reporter of decisions, the marshal, and the librarian, who are appointed by the Court to assist in the performance of its functions. The library is open to members of the bar

of the Court, attorneys for the various Federal departments and agencies, and Members of Congress. Only members of the bar of the Court may practice before the Supreme Court.

The term of the Court begins, by law, the first Monday in October of each year and continues as long as the business before the Court requires, usually until about the middle of June. Six members constitute a quorum. Approximately 4,400 cases are passed upon in the course of a term. In addition, some 1,200 applications of various kinds are filed each year that can be acted upon by a single Justice.

JURISDICTION. According to the Constitution (art. III, sec. 2), "the judicial Power shall extend to all Cases. in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;-to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;-to Controversies between two or more States:-between a State and Citizens of another State;between Citizens of different States;— between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

"In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make."

Appellate jurisdiction has been conferred upon the Supreme Court by various statutes, under the authority given Congress by the Constitution. The statute effective at this time in

conferring and controlling jurisdiction of the Supreme Court may be found in title 28, chapter 81, of the United States Code; sections 1251-1257. Congress has no authority to change the original jurisdiction of this Court.

RULE-MAKING POWER.-Congress has from time to time conferred upon the Supreme Court power to prescribe rules of procédure to be followed by the lower courts of the United States. Pursuant to these statutes there are now in force rules promulgated by the Court to govern civil and criminal cases in the district courts, bankruptcy proceedings, admiralty cases, copyright cases, appellate proceedings, and criminal minor offense proceedings before U.S. magistrates.

For further information concerning the Supreme Court, contact the Clerk, United States Supreme Court Building, 1 First Street NE., Washington, D.C. 20543. Phone, 202-393-1640.

UNITED

Lower Courts

STATES COURTS OF AP

PEALS. The courts of appeals are intermediate appellate courts created by act of March 3, 1891 (26 Stat. 826; 28 U. S. C. ch. 3), to relieve the Supreme Court of considering all appeals in cases originally decided by the Federal trial courts. They are empowered to review all final decisions and certain interlocutory decisions (28 U. S. C. 1291, 1292) of district courts, except in those very few situations where the law provides for a direct review by the Supreme Court (see below). They also are empowered to review and enforce orders of many Federal administrative bodies, such as the Securities and Exchange Commission and the National Labor Relations Board (see list in Reviser's Notes to 28 U. S. C. 1291). The decisions of the courts of appeals are final except as they are subject to dis

cretionary review or appeal in the Supreme Court.

The United States is divided into 11 judicial circuits, including the District of Columbia as a circuit (28 U. S. C. 41, 1294), in each of which there is a United States court of appeals. Each of the 50 States is assigned to one of the circuits, and the Territories are assigned variously to the first, third, fifth, and ninth circuits. At present each United States court of appeals has from 3 to 15 permanent circuit judgeships (97 in all), depending upon the amount of judicial work in the circuit. The judge senior in commission who has not reached his seventieth birthday is the chief judge. One of the justices of the Supreme Court is assigned as circuit justice for each circuit. Each court of appeals usually hears cases in divisions consisting of 3 judges, but they may sit en banc with all judges present.

The judges of the United States courts of appeals constitute the judicial council of each circuit and meet at least twice a year to consider the state of Federal judicial business in the circuit and to "make all necessary orders for [its] effective and expeditious administration * * *" (28 U. S. C. 332). The chief judge of each circuit. summons annually a judicial conference of all circuit and district judges in his circuit, and sometimes members of the bar, to discuss the business of the Federal courts of the circuit (28 U. S. C. 333). The chief judge of the circuit, a district judge from each circuit elected by the circuit and district judges of the circuit at their annual judicial conference for a term of 3 years, the Chief Judge of the Court of Claims, and the Chief Judge of the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals serve as members of the Judicial Conference of the United States, of which the Chief Justice of the United States serves as chairman. This is the governing body for the administration of the Federal judicial system as a whole (28 U. S. C. 331).

The judicial circuits appear on pages 48-49.

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURTS.The district courts are the trial courts with general Federal jurisdiction. Each State has at least one district court, while some of the larger States have as many as four. There is also a United States district court in the District of Columbia. Altogether there are 88 district courts in the 50 States, plus the one in the District of Columbia. In addition, the Commonwealth Puerto Rico has a United States district court with jurisdiction corresponding to that of district courts in the various States.

of

At present, each district court has from 1 to 24 Federal district judgeships, depending upon the amount of judicial work within its territory. Only 1 judge is usually required to hear and decide a case in a district court, but in some kinds of cases it is required that 3 judges be called together to comprise the court (28 U. S. C. 2281, 2284). In districts with more than 1 judge, the judge senior in commission who has not reached his seventieth birthday acts as the chief judge. There are altogether 316 permanent district judgeships in the 50 States and 15 in the District of Columbia. There are 2 district judgeships in Puerto Rico. Except in certain Territories, district judges hold their offices during good behavior as provided by Article III, section 1, of the Constitution. However, Congress may create temporary judgeships with the provision that when a vacancy occurs in that office, such vacancy shall not be filled. Each district court has a clerk, a United States attorney, a United States marshal, one or more United States commissioners or magistrates, referees in bankruptcy, probation officers, court reporters, and their assistants. The jurisdiction of the district courts is set forth in 28 U.S.C. 1331-1359, 1361.

Cases from the district courts are reviewed by the United States courts of appeals except that injunction orders