spaces, while at the same time provide adequate views and access for security purposes. The similarity of recreation purpose would give a certain amount of homogeneity to users, and establish a normative behavior pattern. A subtle, but effective peer consciousness could develop which would provide a deterrent to antisocial behavior.

For those who wish or desire to recreate in the security of others, the design principle of clustering may be useful. In such clustering, visibility is an important desire of self-surveillance and detection. Even in using the defensible space theory, the support of protection assistance of a ranger or law enforcement officer is necessary.

Alternately, other visitors may desire solitude in their own or isolated space. Flexibility and variety in design of recreation areas will be needed to accommodate individual pursuits of leisure and to provide overall protection and law enforcement.

While Newman's notion of defensible space is aimed at urban environments, the basic concepts of this theory are clearly applicable to the design of Corps recreation areas, including:

Elimination of multiple access roads;

Lighting of developed areas;

Control points to limit access to a developed area once maximum capacity is reached;

Increase visibility of use areas to facilitate observation by police patrols (e.g., elimination of unnecessary shrubbery);

Creation of "personal security" areas wherein territorial space is delimited and where barriers, real or symbolic, are utilized;

Creation of special use areas (e.g., for mini-bikes, off-road vehicles);

Well planned and controllable traffic patterns;

Elimination of hazard areas;

Utilization of design concepts to maximize group cohesion and social controls;

"Vandal proofing" of project facilities;

Provision of emergency communications systems.

Some of these design considerations are discussed further in following sections of this chapter.

Education and Involvement

An education program oriented towards visitors and local communities is also a valuable component of a comprehensive outdoor recreation program.

Visitor education should receive much more focus than it currently does. The mere posting of Title 36 probably has little impact on users. In fact, all that it seems to do is enable management to enforce the rules. A more positive approach, one more clearly based upon good communication principles, would not be difficult or expensive to develop. Most of the necessary work could be done by a small group of skilled professionals, and supplied with the appropriate information, materials could be custom made for each facility.

If visitors are cognizant of the rules and perceive their necessity and understand that management clearly knows how they (management) want things run, the majority of visitors will be accommodating. It would seem modest investments in this area would be very costeffective.

A vast amount of vandalism and other sorts of disturbances originate within the local communities. This points the way not only to user education but community education as well. The existence or non-existence of community education programs seems to rest much more on attitudes of the District Engineer or lake manager than upon costs of the program (which are minimal).

an interview:

"Conduct of people on Corps lands and lakes such as Red Rock
is strongly influenced by local public opinion, customs, tra-
ditions, and standards. The real de terent is the community
itself. I would point out that the Red Rock Lake Association
exerts a positive and restrining influence upon the conduct of
visitors to the lake who are from the surrounding and adjacent
areas."

Channels of education and communication with local communities also result in useful feedback to guiding planning and management to be more responsive to local interests. For example, the U.S. Soil Conservation Service has maintained a successful community education program over the years. The manager of Lake Wright Patman is involved in community activities, speaks to civic organizations, clubs and schools in Texarkana, and maintains a good working relationship with the county sheriff and city police. The Corps lake manager in this case maintains a personal involvement with the local community with beneficial results. The establishment of a recreation area advisory committee of local citizens to work with lake managers or District Engineer is another approach.

D.

Use of Operation and Maintenance as a Deterrent

There are a number of ways in which improved operation and maintenance of Corps recreation areas may serve to deter antisocial behavior such as littering and vandalism and reduce costs. Cost reductions can be achieved either by reducing O&M costs alone, or by reducing longer range combined capital and O&M investment. Some of the possibilities are described in the following section.

Keeping O&M Current

Many park and recreation administrators believe maintaining clean and neat areas serves as a deterrent to littering and welldesigned facilities--esthetically and functionally--deter vandalism. This intangible relationship has not been studied enough to significantly varify a direct correlation, however, many reservoir managers and

park rangers as well as local park administrators in this study have observed this relationship to be the case in their areas. They reported that when their picnic areas and roadsides were clean, there was often minimal litter thrown about, but when litter did begin to appear, it accumulated rapidly. Obviously, people would tend to throw waste materials about where it appeared to make little difference. Conversely, as litter would be more conspicuous if the area were clean, often a second throw would divert the empty soda can to the trash receptacle.

The effects of vandalism also seems to encourage more vandalism. Some park managers firmly believe that attractively designed and well maintained facilities, such as restroom and shower facilities, are less harshly treated than austere, or even "ugly" buildings serving the same purpose. Additionally, quick repair of vandalized facilities appears to be related to minimal vandalism. If a light in a parking lot

is left broken, it seems more inviting to break more.

Increasing the Use of Portable Facilities

This approach involves the investment of O&M in portable facilities (e.g. restrooms) which are removed when not in use. The Houston park administrators have found this approach to have considerable advantages over the increasing costs and questionable effectiveness of "vandal-proofing" these facilities.

Practicing Selective Landscape Clearing

Careful landscape trimming is important in maintaining views for surveillance from patrol cars, while, at the same time, maintaining selected undergrowth vegetation and trees, as shown in Sketch 1. Such trimming will, in most instances, require two people--one positioned from a surveillance viewpoint, and the other trimming at his direction. Considerable sensitivity for the landscape and an understanding of efficient surveillance perspectives is an important requisite for guiding this kind of maintenance trimming.

ACTIVITY AS