$100 for a single cylinder five horse-power engine, the material in the rough being worth about $40. Not one of the double, triple or quadruple cylinder motors used in automobiles would necessarily cost more than $200 if produced by economical repetition methods. But not one of them is so near perfection that it may even be thought of as approaching finality. The "overhead" expenses in their production are enormous, unless an artificial halt has been made in progressive construction for purely commercial reasons.

About fifty American manufacturers produce somewhat similar motors for use in boats and thousands of gasoline motors are more or less successfully employed to drive machine tools in factories and dynamos in electric light plants. These motors are sold at good profits and yet at prices that do not seem high, but any argument drawn from this condition in favor of cheap gasoline vehiclesof satisfactory construction-would be sadly at fault.

DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED

The hydrocarbon or internal combustion motor is generally known to be the most economical power available and the simplest in construction. Unfortunately, however, this power is by its explosive nature as poorly adapted for the work of driving a vehicle as imaginable, especially where crude roads prevail. To make it available even for unvarying work it is necessary to store it first in the rotary energy of a heavy flywheel and then to take the power wanted from the shaft of the latter. This works very well when the power is uniform or of necessity proportionate to the power developed, as that of turning a propeller wheel in water. Still, when the flywheel is heavy enough to absorb the spasmodic power impulses it does not respond promptly to variations in either the work or the power. It takes some time before an adjustment to slow down the motor can take effect. This would be bad for boats and fatal for automobiles. For this reason alone heavy flywheels cannot be used in boats and automobiles, but their size and weight would also prohibit their use. If, on the other hand, the flywheel is small, its stored energy easily becomes insufficient for the work in hand and the force of each explosion takes effect directly in the work, rendering it highly disagreeable for anybody exposed to the jarring.

If the public would accept a form of transportation in which constant shaking of the vehicle is the unavoidable accompaniment of crude construction, there would be no reason why gasoline automobiles should not be sold very cheaply. But the public, in sober reflection, will do no such thing, as long as there are horses, steam and electricity. The majority still believe in the testimony of their senses and cannot remain persuaded that jarring is pleasant and the odor of partly burned gases a delight.

The cost of gasoline vehicles of the highest quality which the present stage of the art affords is mainly that incurred in making a hundred and one more or less efficacious provisions for minimizing, subduing, smothering and absorbing the evil effects of an explosive power by heavy material, fine workmanship, multicylinder high speed motors, ingenious transmission gears, balancing of rotary parts, etc., and the problems involved are so many sided and difficult that the progress made so far looks like a drop in the bucket from the standpoint of a perfectly unbiased spectator.

If the progress were really satisfactory and conclusive evidence of ultimate complete success, steam vehicles could no more be thought of as in the race, and electric vehicles would be at once abandoned to await some revolutionary invention in applied electrics.

The crude gasoline vehicle is cheap, or ought to be cheap-$500-now. The acceptable gasoline vehicle is not yet made, and the creations which come nearest to the ideal conception of the striving engineer are expensive to make, expensive to sell and none too easy to handle. And yet they are the standard bearers of automobilism. Furthermore, they are growing more complicated rather than less so. Refinement spells complication in the gasoline engine as it did in the formative period of the steam engine. Promising improvements are snapped up by large concerns. The possibilities of unpatentable features have been nearly, if not quite, exhausted. The vista of needed improvements presents a deep and interesting but hazy perspective. Automobilism is yet in its infancy.

Cheapness combined with efficiency is not an immediate prospect, but there is compensation in the thought that when cheapness arrives "to stay," it will come in company with all other good and desirable qualities.

In this thesis several apparent contradictions in a brief and brash analysis of a vast subject may be found harmoniously resolved.-The Iron Age.

Bodman, Walter L. and G. T. Hanchett. "Steam and Gasoline Automobiles," The Automobile, (March 1902), 68-69

These discussions, by engineers, of the two prime motive powers result in opposite findings: one that the steam car is practicable and others doubtful, the other that the gasoline car is "without qualification" the car to buy. However, neither engineer finds any particular overriding advantage in his favorite; instead, each plays down the disadvantages and plays up the advantages of his chosen engine. Like many other observers, Hanchett, writing for gasoline engines, believes that the steam engine is nearly perfected while gasoilne is an "undeveloped power." It is interesting how often the imperfections of the gasoline engine were perceived as chances for improvement while the difficulties of the steam engine were seen as fixed.

THE STEAM AUTOMOBILE

BY WALTER L. BODMAN

Whilst it is obvious that the consideration of the detailed merits of various systems as advanced by their makers will influence the deciding judgment of an automobile purchaser, the more important stage of settling to his satisfaction the variety of power generation he will use must be passed before reaching such a position.

The broad physical claims that can be made in fabor of steam are:

A. The constant generation of heat over a large area, and its absorption by a body of high specific heat, makes it an elastic source of power for use under the most varying load conditions possible to conceive.

B. The generation can be visibly followed in all its stages, and "faults" be readily detected with care when the vehicle is not in operation, so that the operator is usually himself to blame if his machine breaks down in public.

The result of the former feature is a mechanical construction simpler in form and cheaper in construction and maintenance than can be used on a constant load engine generating heat intermittently. An ability to use grosser fuel, and a pleasanter movement of all the parts, engine, transmission and vehicle itself, are obtained. The writer considers that steam vehicle makers are in error in relying absolutely on the variability of steam to surmount all road and weather conditions and that on every vehicle a second or emergency speed should be provided. Still it is a well-known fact that the running gear of a steam machine can practically provide for all conditions, and thereby not only the mechanical construction be reduced to its lowest point, but nearly all the elements of driving skill be eliminated. Ability to recognize the limits of an explosion motor, and the moment when a change of gear is necessary, is in some hilly districts difficult to acquire; and in addition the changes of gear carelessly made can be extremely destructive.

There is little doubt that the use of gasoline for steam vehicles will soon be a thing of the past, and kerosine, which it is perfectly practicable to use in plate burners properly designed, will take its place.

The fuel cost of running an automobile does not exceed, probably does not reach 30% of the total charge, wear of the transmission being a far heavier one; but it is desirable to make this change of fuel in order to equalize fuel cost in a steam car with the same cost in an explosion engine.

The quickness of movement of a steam vehicle will probably form a principal argument in its adoption for business vehicles which are under the necessity to make constant stops of unknown length, their noise having been a militating factor against explosion motor cars in England for this purpose. Provided, however, that he does not get an excessively high prime cost or running and maintenance cost, all considerations for the automobile purchaser are trivial beside that

of immunity from break-down, and particularly break-down under distressing conditions. And there is not the slightest reason why a properly designed steam car, receiving in the coach house as much careful examination as a fairly good horse would obtain, should ever annoy its owner by failure in work.

A great debt is owing to the original designers of the present light American steam car, for the possibilities they demonstrated; but to our mind the experience of the last two years has shown that the time is ripe to change the general arrangement of the steam car, or it may disappear, owing to the difficulties, the present design places in the way of seeing and regulating the generation of power, the most valuable feature of the system.

The adoption of an arrangement by which the weights are brought considerably nearer the ground, the driver moved back from his position over the steering axle, the engine and boiler placed under a hood in front of the driver and the gauges and control levers in a similar position, and the adoption of a “dead” driving axle with double chain drive to each rear wheel are common sense methods of utilizing the "visibility" of steam generation, that with very ordinary care gives steam an almost absolute immunity from unexpected breakdown.

There is nothing to guess about in steam; given a good fire under the boiler, and water in the boiler, the car will run, provided the mechanism beyond the engine is in good order. In this mechanism again there is nothing to guess at for it need contain no slippery device to allow for and trust to. In such a design as we speak of, atmospheric and temperature conditions are unable to prevent the successful operation of the car as a self-propelled vehicle. Rain, wind and low temperatures will naturally affect all transport, but in the case of steam the limit of efficiency is purely the power of adhesion, and no especial knowledge is required to make the motor itself agreeable to the weather prevailing.

Any system other than steam relies for the generation of its power either on excessive mechanical contrivances, as in explosion engines where the admission of the fuel, the volume of the fuel, the regulation, the time of the explosion, the utilization of the explosion and the exhausting of the waste products are separate mechanical operations, none of which admit of any visible indication at the moment of operation that they are being correctly performed, or on chemical means for transporting and utilizing power, as in an electric vehicle. The bringing together of two delicate powers such as an explosion engine with electric ignition necessitates the maintenance of a mechanical efficiency that can only be assured by costly workmanship and expert attention.

The aim of the designer who has the commercial welfare of the industry at heart is to produce a vehicle that shall be roomy and fairly solid in its construction, as certain in operation as a horse receiving proper attention, that shall be sold at a price fixed somewhat by the present cost of such a horse, vehicle and equipments, and shall not exceed the present horse owner's allowance of about 25% of the prime cost for its year's repair maintenance. This means a wellequipped car devoid of fantastic tubular and other toy-like construction, of complete carriage-like proportion, at a total cost of $800, to be run 7,000 or 8,000 miles for a repair bill of $150 to keep it in condition equal to a new car. Such a cost no user could object to, for it is a substantial saving on any form of transport now in use on road, and with a good steam car it is practicable and certain of attainment. Whether this is so with cars using other means of propulsion the writer greatly questions.

THE GASOLINE VEHICLE

BY GEORGE T. HANCHETT

To intelligently answer the question, "What is the best automobile to purchase?" immediately necessitates asking two others, namely, for what purpose is it intended, and who is to operate and care for it? For work within its traction limits, the electric vehicle gives the least trouble to the passenger, but this ceases to be true if the passenger is at once the operator and caretaker, and it also follows that the owner of such a vehicle must have more money to pay bills than those who use steam or gasoline for automobile work. It is further necessary that the passenger shall be satisfied with the limited radius afforded by the electric vehicle. The operator, however, need not be a man of technical attainments or even have more than ordinary familiarity with the power he is using,

for the condition of things is such that he cannot stray far from home. For city delivery work, where a charging station of considerable dimensions provided with competent attendants can be had, electricity satisfactorily fills another field beside that of ordinary city passenger transportation. The automobile enthusiast, however, who represents at present a very large percentage of the manufacturers custom, must dismiss the electric vehicle at once, and there remains for him only steam or gasoline, or perhaps in some cases a combination of either of these powers with electricity.

The load on an automobile engine is probably the most variable load ever put on a motive device of any kind. The motor which delivers this power must possess reserve torque in enormous excess of its steady operating capacity. The vehicle is likely to encounter positions where a certain torque is required to extricate it. This may be needed only for a moment, but if it is not forthcoming the vehicle is stalled and the trip is at an end until extraordinary means are brought in play. The recourse of the steam vehicle is to wait until the boiler pressure has reached a sufficient amount to develop the torque necessary for the purpose. The pressure is often allowed to run up from 200 to 500 pounds in order to give the vehicle sufficient power to mount a grade or traverse a bad stretch of road. This suggests many things with reference to the working strength of the metal of which the boiler is made or the rating of the working boiler pressure, for the designer may depend upon it that among the many automobilists who may handle his vehicles, there will be found some who will let the pressure run up to almost any amount rather than to get out and push.

The reserve torque of a gasoline vehicle is found in its gear, clutch and flywheel system. A gasoline engine can be unclutched from the vehicle and brought up to high speed, and if judiciously clutched to the vehicle on the low-gearing ratio, the result is a very large torque which will usually serve to move the vehicle a short distance. It is very often the case that a short distance is sufficient. If, however, the distance during which the heavy load continues is long, as in the case of a long stretch of heavy muddy road or steep grade, the engine must have sufficient continuous torque to meet the demand. Therefore, the gasoline vehicle should on its low gearing be able to skid its wheels on ordinary roads, and the same should be true of a steam vehicle operated at a reasonable excess of boiler pressure.

At the high speeds, the steam vehicle is likely to be deceptive, for it can spurt for short distances at speeds which it could never maintain for longer ones, because of its inability to keep up the necessary steam pressure which it is easily able to momentarily acquire. The gasoline vehicle, on the other hand, can continuously maintain the maximum speed of which it is capable under uniform road conditions. The steam vehicle is light, stylish, moderately quiet, and its visible exhaust is not an annoyance to the passenger. In its present form, it is useful for light delivery work or moderately extended touring purposes. It requires more fuel than a gasoline vehicle of equal speed and carrying capacity, and it requires on the part of the operator more expert proficiency than any other vehicle. The gasoline vehicle may refuse to run through ignorance or mismanagement, but it is not so likely to hopelessly injure itself through such causes as its steam-propelled competitor.

The gasoline vehicle requires a peculiar qualification of the part of the operator, namely, an intuitive knowledge of the capabilities of the power. The electric vehicle is simply a case of turn on the power and wait for the results. A steam vehicle is largely so with the single exception that the power can be increased by waiting for the steam pressure to rise, but the gasoline automobile must be operated with a certain intuition which neither of the other vehicles require. The expert gasoline automobilist can tell by the sound of his engine and the condition of the road the exact time to apply the energy and the proper gear to use, and can coax astonishing results out of an equipment where a less experienced man would fail completely.

Like the steam vehicle, the supplies are gasoline, water and lubricating oil, but less gasoline and any supply of water will answer, and concerning the water, it may be said that the supply will last very much longer, as it is used for cooling and not for motive purposes. About the only cases where carelessness can seriously injure the gasoline vehicle are those of allowing water to freeze in the cylinder and crack the castings, or to neglect properly supplying the cylinder with oil. The latter case will effectively stop the engine for a time, but even then will not injure the same so seriously that ordinary repairs will not suffice.

The gasoline engine depends absolutely upon the reliability of its ignition, which is usually electric, and requires a reliable source, a well-insulated line and coils, and a clean plug and contacts, matters which a few hours study should make the novice an expert. It, therefore, reigns supreme in the long distance field, and owing to the fact that it can be built much lighter for equal amounts of continuous torque, other things being equal, it holds and will continue to hold supremacy in long distance racing until a radical departure from existing methods in the design of its competitors is made. It is the noisiest of all the vehicles, but its exhaust is colorless, and if proper combustion is obtained, it is largely carbonic acid gas, which is not unduly offensive.

The state of art is such that it is difficult to compare the three powers, for in few cases are the vehicles built on similar lines. In speed, in rugged reliability and independence of a source of supply, the gasoline vehicle stands first, and those who are content to overlook slightly greater vibration and noise will be well satisfied, especially if they take pains to become familiar with the peculiar art of utilizing the power.

The steam vehicle in its present form is light, speedy, graceful and easy to operate, but it is more dependent on source of supply of lesser radius, and in general less substantial.

The electric vehicle is the level, smooth road vehicle for the rich owner with a coachman operator. The brains necessary to maintain the electric vehicle are in the charging station, and it is perhaps fortunate that its radius is so limited that it cannot stray farther from that most important source of supply.

The electric vehicle is at present at a standstill as far as future development is concerned, and will so remain until an improved form of storage battery appears. The torque and efficiency of electric motors is perhaps better known by designers than the corresponding properties of any other form of motor. Perfection in the motor design is a known quantity, and this has been reached within excedingly small percentages in existing machines.

Steam is also at a standstill as far as developing the motive power is concerned. Improvements in this class of vehicle will be confined to increasing the economy and reliability. Gasoline, on the other hand, is as yet an undeveloped power. It is difficult to predict just what results will be obtained in the future for a given weight of metal. The chances for improvement in all directions are admittedly the best. It is capable of an advancement with which its two competitors cannot keep pace, for it is certain to receive improvements of a radical character.

The fields of steam and electricity for automobile work have been so largely exhausted that future improvement in them seems to be quite remote.

At present the answer to the question without qualification as to which is the best automobile to buy, seems to be gasoline. In the future the outlook seems to be such that we may dismiss the doubt and answer in the same way unequivocally.

Edison, Thomas A. "The Storage Battery and the Motor Car," North American Review, 175 (July 1902), 1-4

It was well recognized that the future of the electric car, otherwise so attractive, was limited by its battery's weight and need for frequent recharging. Thus, when Thomas Edison, the doyen of American inventors, announced an imminent breakthrough in batteries, the public must have felt that the viability of this alternative had been reestablished.

THE STORAGE BATTERY AND THE MOTOR CAR

BY THOMAS A. EDISON

The final perfection of the storage battery, which I believe has been accomplished, will in my opinion bring about a multitude of changes and improvements in our business and social economy. No one of these will interest the public more just now than the doing away with the chauffeur, the irresponsible instrument, in the public eye at least, of so many recent accidents with automobiles.