Finally, an engine that is reversible will prove valuable, as it will relieve the builder of the vehicle of the problem of providing a reverse transmission. If the features outlined in the foregoing can be accomplished with the use of kerosene instead of gasoline, the results will be still more satisfactory. That it is a difficult task to accomplish all these results is a foregone conclusion, but that it is a task too difficult for American inventive genius, the writer will not admit. We already have the results accomplished by the French and Germans in this line to help us, and it would be an insult to American ingenuity to admit for a moment that we can not excel the foreign designers, once we set ourselves to do so. It is no task to be accomplished in a day, but, when it is accomplished, the financial results will be more than sufficient to pay for long and studious work.-Modern Machinery. Anon. "Steam Abroad," The Motor World, In this article, the French rejection of the steam automobile STEAM ABROAD PARIS, Oct. 26.-I had a very interesting chat the other day, before he left for home, with Mr. Overman, of the Overman Automobile Co., who brought his steam car to Paris, and is in a fair way of convincing the French that he has got something which will change the whole aspect of the automobile question. When any one talks of revolutionizing the industry you may be disposed to regard him as visionary, but you who know him, know that Mr. Overman is not of this class, though he goes as far as most inventors in his claims for the new vehicle. Mr. Overman expects that his light steam car will force its way to the front and become popular among automobilists on this side. If so, it will produce a great change in the position of the industry here. NO FRENCH FAITH The French have very little faith in steam for small carriages, because they argue that, while there can be no possibility of explosion in the gasolene motor, there is not the same immunity in the steam boiler which would send the driver sky high if anything should go wrong with the feed pump, for example. It may be said that there are more accidents arising from gasolene tanks igniting and setting fires to the cars, than from exploded boilers, but the French will tell you that is not exactly the question. One of the reasons why the French object to light steam cars is that the Department of Mines, which in France controls steam generators, and in fact motors of all descriptions, apply extremely severe regulation to steam boilers, and these imply such a high standard of security that people doubt whether boilers can be fitted to small road vehicles which will be passed by the authorities. PROTECTING HOME INDUSTRY Again, it must be remembered that makers here have taken a big lead in automobile construction through their skill in the manufacture of internal combustion motors. All French motor cars are of the gasolene type, excluding, of course, those driven by electricity, and it is not surprising that they look upon the probable competition of steam with anything but a favorable eye. The length to which makers here are prepared to carry their opposition to steam was seen during the late Automobile Congress in Paris, when only one member had the courage to get up and declare that all the arguments put forward by the Frenchmen against steam were heresies. WHAT THE MAJOR DID That man was Major Howard, of New York, During the discussion the Major whispered to me that it was nothing but a concerted attack on American steam cars, and appearances certainly bore out that idea. All the resolutions in condemnation of steam carriages fired with light oils were carried, despite the protests of Major Howard, who said that the French were not going the right way to promote amicable relations with American manufacturers by doing what they could to stifle a great and promising industry. I have referred to this part of the Congress just to show the attitude of the French toward light steam vehicles, and to demonstrate the difficulties that an American like Mr. Overman must encounter in trying to introduce his vehicles into this country. A steam car, to be successful here, must be absolutely safe. This is one of the claims made for the Overman automobile; that is, it is not only safe, but Mr. Overman has aimed at making it absolutely automatic, so no part is liable to derangement, or, if an accident should take place to the mechanism, it will not give rise to any danger. He has started by conceiving what a perfect automobile should be, and he has attempted to build a car according to his ideal. ALMOST FOOL PROOF He has taken every objection that can be raised against the motor car, and has tried to meet them until, as a result, he has produced a vehicle which he thinks is above criticism. The future of the automobile, Mr. Overman argues, depends upon the good will of the pedestrian. People who go afoot are legion, and it is hardly likely that the pleasure of a few thousand automobilists will be allowed to clash with the interests of millions who have to peregrinate on Shank's mare. Wherefore, says Mr. Overman, there must be nothing in any automobile which may cause any annoyance to pedestrians. It must be silent and absolutely devoid of unpleasant odors, and, moreover, must be under such perfect control that it can be stopped instantly. Judged from this standard the Overman car is all that can be desired. Kingman, J. A. "The Steam Automobile." Cassier's Magazine, 19 (December 1900), 117-128 The significance of this article lies in Kingman's analysis of the development of steam carriages. He notes that their improvement was slow but progressive during the early part of the 19th century, but then the industry died out in 1840, and did not regenerate until near the end of the century, when much of the work was done in the United States. Kingman concludes that the steam engine itself is the best source of motive power for automobiles, and contends that it was other factors such as poor roads, tolls (imposed in response to pressure by horse-drawn vehicle interests), (an unjustified) fear of explosions, and the success of railroads-which explain the hiatus in development of the steam vehicle and retarded its "natural and steady growth." THE STEAM AUTOMOBILE BY J. A. KINGMAN The application of steam as a motive power for road vehicles is not a new thing. It is not even modern, for the first successful steam carriage was built over a hundred and twenty years ago. The power of steam was well known to the ancients, and from the time of Hero to the latter part of the eighteenth century we find numerous allusions to the possibility of steam as a prime mover. James Watt, in one of his letters, wrote:-"My attention was first directed to the subject of steam-engines by the late Dr. Robinson, then a student of the University of Glasgow, afterwards professor of natural philosophy in the same institution. He, in 1759, suggested the idea of applying the power of the steamengine to the moving of wheel carriages and to other purposes, but the scheme was soon abandoned on his going abroad." It will be noticed that this suggestion of Dr. Robinson antedates Watt's experiments on the steam-engine, and may have influenced his remarkable series of inventions. The first steam automobile was built in France in 1769 by Nicholas Joseph Cugnot, a French military engineer, after his retirement from the army. The vehicle was built with public funds, Cugnot having interested the Minister of War in the matter. The first carriage was unsuccessful, either on account of the small size of the boiler or of inefficient feed pumps. It could not run for more than a short distance without stopping to get up steam. It possessed considerable power, however, and broke down a stone wall in one of its erratic journeys. A second machine was a three-wheeled vehicle, the boiler being placed in front and the forewheel driven by a double-cylinder engine. This carriage, together with an excellent model of it, is now preserved in the Conservatoire des Arts and Metiers at Paris. Cugnot may thus be credited with having made the first successful steam motor carriage. In England, Watt was apparently too much engrossed with other work to pay much attention to steam carriages. He applied for a patent for one in 1781, but there is no record of his having followed up the matter further. In later years Watt was opposed to steam carriages and would not let them pass his residence. In 1772 Oliver Evans, in America started his investigation of the steam-engine. In 1776 he petitioned the Legislature of Pennsylvania for the exclusive right to use his invention for flour mills and steam carriages. The petition was partially granted in 1787, but the steam carriage part of it was entirely ignored. The Legislature of the State of Maryland granted a similar petition in 1787. Evans succeeded in making for the Board of Health of Philadelphia a curious steam dredging machine, which, when finished, was mounted on wheels and run by steam from the shop where it was built to the water, a distance of a mile and a half. There the wheels were removed, the boat was launched, and steam was used to turn the paddlewheels. Returning to England, we find that William Murdock, a contemporary of Boulton and Watt, made a most successful model of a steam carriage in 1784, but did not proceed further. William Symington, who built the first practical steamboat ever made, also made a model in 1786 which gave excellent results. No successful steam motor carriage was, however, made in England until 1801, when Richard Trevithick produced a steam carriage, which, although crude in the extreme, was a practical locomotive. This carriage was first tested on Christmas Eve, in 1801, and ran for several trips. Trevithick's success was very marked, and much is due to his experiment. He was the first to introduce exhaust steam in the smokestack. Still another carriage intended for use on common roads was that of Julius Griffith, built for him by Bramah in 1821. The whole outfit was of excellent design and construction. The boiler, however, was so designed that it made the regular generation of steam impossible, as water was expelled from the tubes and could not be re-introduced. Although the carriage was often experimented with in the yard or shop grounds where it was constructed, there is no record of any trips or tests being made. From the time of the construction of Griffith's carriage, in 1821, until 1840 steam carriages were built for operation on common roads. Most of these were experimental and were built by private individuals at great labour and expense. All were heavy and clumsy, and could not run more than seven or eight miles without stopping to take on fuel and water. As a rule, they were mechanically successful and could run at rates of speed ranging from eight to twenty miles an hour. J. Scott Russell, who designed and built the Great Eastern, built also a number of steam coaches of excellent design. These were run successfully between Glasgow and Paisley until hostile legislation prevented their further operation. Sir James Anderson, an Irish baronet, devoted thirty-one years of his life to steam carriages and spent £30,000 on experiments, but achieved little or no success. Undoubtedly the three most successful early builders of steam carriages were Gurney, Hancock, and Maceroni. Of these three, Gurney has received the most credit, and at one time a committee from the House of Commons recommended a grant of £16,000 as reimbursement for his expense in experimenting with steam carriages. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney started his experiments in 1825, and built steam coaches until 1832. They were fitted with his patent water-tube boiler, and with slide-valve engines, a feature of the boiler being a system of chambers or separators to prevent priming. Steam could be raised in about five minutes, under favourable conditions. In 1831 Sir Charles Dance started a steam stage-coach line between Gloucester and Cheltenham, using Gurney's coaches. The line was successfully operated for four months, when determined opposition, coupled with excessive turnpike tolls, caused the venture to be abandoned. At one time eighteen inches of broken stone were laid on the Gloucester road, and the carriage, loaded with twenty passengers, twice ploughed through the obstruction; but the strain so weakened an axle that it broke. During the existence of this stage-coach line 396 journeys were made, covering 3,644 miles in all. Four hundred passengers were carried, and £78 were expended for coke, or about 5d a mile for fuel. In 1831 Gurney petitioned to have the excessive rates of toll removed. In the same year a select committee of the House of Commons took evidence for three months from the leading stream carriage builders and civil engineers of the country. Among these were such men as Davies Gilbert, M. P., president of the Royal Society; Thomas Telford, president of the Institution of Civil Engineers; James MacAdam, inventor of the macadam pavement, and others of similar standing. This committee inquired most thoroughly into the proportion of tolls which should be imposed upon coaches and other vehicles propelled by steam upon turnpike roads, also the rate of tolls actually levied, and, further, into the state at that time and future prospects of the steam carriage on common roads. Their conclusions were: First. That carriages can be propelled by steam on common roads at an average rate of ten miles an hour. Second. That at this rate they have conveyed upwards of fourteen passengers each. Third. That their weight, including engine, fuel, water and attendants, may be under three tons. Fourth. That they can ascend and descend hills of considerable inclination with facility and safety. Fifth. That they are perfectly safe for passengers. Sixth. That they are not, or need not be, if properly constructed, a nuisance to the public. Seventh. That they will become a speedier and cheaper mode of conveyance than carriages drawn by horses. Eighth. That, as they have a greater breadth of tire than other carriages, and as the roads are not acted on so injuriously as by the feet of horses in common draught, such carriages cause less wear of roads than coaches drawn by horses. Ninth. That rates of toll have been imposed on steam carriages which would prohibit their being used on several lines of roads, were such charges permitted to remain unaltered. A bill for the repeal of the "Turnpike Act" was twice referred to a select committee, but did not pass the House of Lords. On the failure of this bill Gurney gave up the manufacture of steam carriages. Walter Hancock was the most successful builder of steam carriages in England at this date. He built ten carriages, nine of them large omnibuses, and the last two carriages were successful in every way. Hancock began working on steam carriages in 1825, and continued his labours until 1840. The boiler employed by Hancock consisted of a series of chambers arranged vertically. The bosses of one chamber rested against the bosses of another, the whole being stayed by strong bolts. The engine had two cylinders and was placed vertically, motion from the crankshaft being communicated to the rear axle by a chain. It is stated that Hancock was the first steam carriage builder to run his carriage in the streets of London, where they were operated without noise, smoke, or appearance of steam. They did not frighten horses, and created a most favourable impression. Hancock's carriage ran between London and Paddington for five months. The London & Paddington Steam-Coach Company was formed with the intention of using Hancock's machines, but the company treated Hancock in anything but a business-like way, retaining one of his carriages for a considerable period for the purpose of taking it apart and copying it. Many important improvements were introduced by Hancock, and his carriages were very successful, mechanically. He introduced exhaust steam into the fire, and it was usually invisible. The safety valve was arranged to blow off in a separate box. The system of springs used was excellent. The connection of Colonel Maceroni with the manufacture of steam carriages has been more or less ignored by historians. Maceroni built two of the best steam carriages ever made, although he was handicapped by lack of funds. He was also particularly unfortunate in business ventures, and did not succeed in making more than two vehicles. The arrangement of his machinery was very compact, and Gordon describes the carriage as being “a fine specimen of indomitable perseverance." The boiler was an excellent one, of the vertical watertube type, with steam connections at the top and water connections at the bottom. It was fitted with a steam dome. A pressure of 150 pounds was carried. The vehicle ran with great speed, twenty miles an hour being often attained. Maceroni and Squire were in partnership for a considerable period. After this partnership was dissolved Maceroni became short of money and allowed a man named Asda to take the two carriages abroad. Asda agreed to pay Maceroni a certain percentage of the price received for patents, and departed. The carriages created a sensation on the Continent, and Asda was successful both in the demonstration of the capabilities of the vehicle and in the sale of the patents. On his return, however, he refused to make any settlement with Maceroni, and took all of the money, as well as the credit, to himself. Since, then, up to that time a number of successful steam carriages had been built, the question naturally arises why the steam carriage industry did not have a natural and steady growth instead of dying out completely about the year 1840? This question cannot be answered off-hand, as the failure of steam carriages was due to a variety of reasons. There were, to begin with, poor roads. The condition of roads in Great Britain at that time was generally bad, and the excessive vibration caused by travelling at a fairly good rate of speed was too much for the machinery, so that repairs were frequently necessary. Rubber tires had not yet been invented, and springs were just beginning to be used. The steam carriage industry, moreover, was strongly opposed by numbers of country gentlemen, landlords, stage-coach companies, and others who did all they could to have the steam carriages turned off the roads. Excessive tolls were a direct result of this opposition, and it is said that at one time there were no less than forty bills presented to Parliament for the purpose of having steam carriages removed from common roads. Then, too, there was the unfortunate tendency of inventors to disregard previous inventions. Many of the builders of steam carriages at that time were unwilling to accept well-tried ideas, but went their own way, trying to introduce their own patents. As a result, almost all the steam carriages built were, in every particular, experiments, instead of being an assemblage of tried devices with a few improvements or later inventions. Another factor opposing steam carriage progress was the growth of the steam railway. Following Stephenson's successful run with his locomotive, The Rocket, in 1829, this growth was very rapid. The leading scientific and moneyed men devoted most of their time to this subject, and in conseqeunce the steam carriage naturally suffered. There are few records at this date of any accidents with steam carriages. While Roberts was running a steam carriage in the streets of Manchester, several of the boiler tubes burst, but the accident was a slight one, though greatly exaggerated at the time. Little damage was done. A serious accident, however, happened to one of Scott Russell's steam carriages while running from Glasgow to Paisley. Somebody, opposed to the steam stage-coach line, had placed eighteen inches of broken stone in the road, and, while ploughing through, the carriage was overturned, and the great weight resting on the boiler caused it to explode. Several of the passengers were killed and others injured. In 1840 the subject of steam locomotion on common roads ceased to be a matter of public interest, and from that time on there was no marked development other than in connection with the traction engine. The steam carriages of Rickets, Carrett, and others were simply traction engines arranged to carry passengers. In America, J. K. Fisher devoted much study to the steam carriage, although he was discouraged in his attempts by those who claimed that in Great Britain, on better roads, little or nothing had been accomplished. Fisher experimented as late as 1870 and pro |