ing and obsolete forms; so that there was absolute truth in Voltaire's assertion that it was "not holy, not Roman, not an empire." All the Austrian states were distracted by the well-meant but ill-considered innovations of Joseph II. Prussia, which had recently and successively been under the sway of two remarkably-able sovereigns, was without a constitution by which a continuance of its greatness could be secured. Poland and Turkey were in hopeless anarchy. In all European countries the intelligence of the people was in advance of their respective governments, and the institutions which had served the requirements of the Middle Ages were inadequate to the increasing demands of modern times.

of French

Literature

American

Revolu

tion.

The latter half of the eighteenth century was signalized by the mul- Influence tiplication of clubs and secret societies in every European country, as well as by the universal diffusion of light periodical literature, instilling and the into the common people the skeptical philosophy which had already in the minds of the higher classes undermined all principles of civil or religious authority. The triumph of the American Revolution, which established popular government in the New World, seemed to justify the destruction of all thrones and class distinctions; though few considered the severe moral training which had prepared the Anglo-American colonists for their unique and heroic task. In the War of American Independence, the people of Europe, who were filled with the ideas and dreams of Rousseau, saw the beginning of the great struggle which was to give the human race a state of paradisiacal happiness—a struggle which was to end in the establishment of the inherent rights of humanity. The War of the American Revolution thus excited a particular interest in Europe because it was the first contest of young Freedom against the old prerogatives, forms and institutions.

Before the

The Age of Revolutions in Europe had only commenced. storm passed, every European country was to experience changes, though France was the scene of the most violent transformation. The oppressions of a thousand years were certain to be avenged whenever the masses of the people should become sufficiently enlightened and fully conscious of their power.

The new spirit of the age, emanating from Paris, was fully recognized by the sovereigns and the Prime Ministers of the different nations of Continental Europe, who inaugurated various civil, political and ecclesiastical reforms. They sought to put in practice what was advocated in speech and writing as the truth. In all these European countries zealous efforts were made to revolutionize ancient forms and institutions, laws and customs, and by new arrangements to adapt them to the spirit of the age. In the realm of religion this spirit of reform first manifested itself by proclaiming toleration in matters of religious

Age of Revolutions.

Innova

tions of Monarchs

and

Prime

Ministers.

Political,
Social

and

Innova

tions.

faith, in the suppression of the Order of Jesuits and in the abolition of the Inquisition. In France the new free religious toleration soon degenerated into the encouragement of open infidelity. This new epoch of humanity manifested itself most actively and with the best results in the affairs of law, in which efforts were made everywhere to establish, as far as possible, the equal administration of justice to all men, and to ameliorate or abolish the statutes and burdens which had been transmitted from the Middle Ages.

Serfdom was abolished in many European countries, feudal duties being done away with and oppressive or degrading regulations being Economic removed. New codes and ordinances concerning the administration of justice were adopted, annulling the cruel punishments of a stern and gloomy epoch, such as the rack, the wheel, etc., and granting the privileges of humanity even to the criminal. In the field of political economy new principles were established in France and were adopted in many other European countries. These principles recognized money as the great lever of science, and therefore the great object was to raise as large a revenue as possible by labor and by making use of natural means. This principle encouraged agriculture, mining, trade, industry and useful inventions; but it also led to the imposition of oppressive duties, to the royal right of preemption, to indirect taxation and to the use of paper money.

Hostility to the Roman

Church

General hostility to the Roman Catholic Church and its most powerful and celebrated Order, the Jesuits, was manifested in several of the Catholic Roman Catholic countries, such as Portugal, Spain and France. Several prelates in Germany sought to place the Roman Church under the control of the civil power. One of the German prelates was Hontheim of Treves, better known as "Febronius," under which name he wrote his celebrated treatise, On the State of the Church and the Legitimate Power of the Pontiff.

and the Jesuits.

Jesuits Banished

The writers against the Jesuits complained that the Order kept the and Sup- people in ignorance; that it was opposed to all means of reform and pressed. popular enlightenment, and that it was the cause of religious intolerance. The Jesuits were successively banished from such Roman Catholic countries as Portugal, Spain, France and Naples; and the Order was finally suppressed by a papal edict, though it was subsequently restored. We shall now proceed to give an account of these events and of other innovations and reforms in European countries.

Carvalho, the

Reform

States

man of

Portugal.

The first of these innovators and reformers was Carvalho, Marquis of Pombal, the all-powerful Prime Minister of King JOSEPH of Portugal, and one of the most remarkable statesmen of his time, who justly ascribed his country's decline to the grasping ambition of the Jesuits. During the bigoted and extravagant reign of Joseph's father and pred

ecessor, John V., A. D. 1706-1750, all the gold and diamonds of
Brazil had been inadequate to save Portugal from bankruptcy. One-
tenth of the Portuguese population was immured in convents, while all
forms of industry were in the hands of foreigners. By a treaty with
Spain, in 1750, Portugal acquired the Seven Missions of Paraguay,
whose inhabitants were under the rule of the Jesuits.
The treaty pro-
vided for the removal of the Jesuits to Spanish territory; but the
Portuguese and Spanish commissioners who were appointed to superin-
tend the migration were successfully resisted by the Paraguayans
themselves under the direction of their Jesuit teachers.

Lisbon
Earth-

quake

and Ban

ishment

of the Jesuits

from

Before the Paraguayans and the Jesuits were reduced to submission, Lisbon was overwhelmed by the great earthquake of November 1, 1755, which destroyed thirty thousand houses and sixty thousand lives. The Jesuits attributed this dreadful calamity to Divine wrath against Carvalho, but the courageous Prime Minister was undaunted. After promptly and severely suppressing the pillage and disorder which had Portugal. followed the earthquake, and after organizing the most liberal efforts for the relief of the sufferers, he proceeded with renewed vigor in the execution of his chosen policy. An attempt to murder King Joseph was attributed to the powerful family of Tavora and to the instigation of the Jesuits, and thus afforded a pretext for the expulsion of the Order from Portugal; and in September, 1759, all the Jesuits in the kingdom were shipped to the Pope's dominions. The Jesuit colleges in Portugal were thus closed, and Carvolho sought to enlighten his countrymen by the establishment of new seminaries of education and by the diffusion of printed books.

Carvalho's pervading activity was felt in all branches of the public service in Portugal. He caused the army to be reorganized by the German marshal, Count William of Lippe-Schaumburg. He encouraged agriculture and industry in order to draw the Portuguese people from dirt and indolence. He united the severity and arbitrariness of the despot to the courage and the penetrating will of the reformer, and filled all the prisons of the kingdom with those who opposed him.

King Joseph died in 1777, and was succeeded by his daughter MARIA, who was then forty-two years of age. As she was the first female sovereign of Portugal, there was some opposition to her accession; but this was easily suppressed, and her authority was generally acknowledged. As Joseph had no son he had his daughter married to his brother, her uncle, Dom Pedro, who reigned jointly with her as PEDRO III. until his death, in 1786. During the weak reign of Maria and Pedro III. the imprisoned opponents of Carvalho were released, and they united themselves in overthrowing the all-powerful Prime Minister; after which

Innovations and

Reforms of

Carvalho.

Queen Maria and

Pedro III.

and

Fall of

Carvalho.