you want to make a sharp black line, your ink must be black and stand out clear on the paper; if a light line is desired, do not put water in the ink, but make the line light or fine, or put a number of very light lines together. What is called single line or simple outline (Ex. 18) is distinguished from a number of merged lines (Ex. 10). The ancient mode was to make the line of equal thickness throughout, as you may observe on antique pottery. The modern method is to accentuate and thicken the line in parts, which enables the difference between the side in light and the side in shadow of the object delineated to be determined. This is what is known as the many-lined method of outlining.

In Ex. 6, you will notice a light effect secured by making the lines fine and separate. You may work, of course, with different materials in the same drawing to get your effect-pencil, crayon, chalk, or on grey paper, in which

case the white parts would be put in with chalk or Chinese white. An old method called hatching or cross-hatching was once much used in order to form a shading. It was the arrangement of the lines at angles more or less acute, so as to form a sort of tiny check pattern or plaid. But

nowadays a patch of ink or charcoal is more frequently relied on to serve the same purpose.

Having considered how to make lines, the application of them in a drawing is the next point. The first sketch should be made lightly with a hard pencil (Ex. 13). This is merely a guide. Shadows and distances

should be

outlined as well as possible, and then this pencil-sketch inked over. Neatness and finish of line, it must be recollected, is not necessarily artistic, but may be mechanical, cold, and stiff. A little roughness or break in the line often gives variety of effect. In Ex. 19, if the lines were all hard and neat the effect would not be nearly so good.

Besides drawing in outline, the artist may draw by masses, as before explained. This is adopting the method of the painter, or in other words, painting in ink. Between a white paper, covered with the blackest ink and the white of the paper there are many tones or shades of colour. These tones are all grey blacks of more or less intensity. By watering the ink different strengths are obtained. Painting thus with ink with the aid of a brush, or your finger, or anything suitable, produces what are called Washes or Wash drawings, which resemble in some respects photographs. A pencil-sketch may be made for guidance, and then the ink spread over the paper-portions of it in one place being taken out with a stump of blotting paper, other portions being worked up to different strengths of blackness and greyness. Chinese white and chalk are used where the greatest whiteness is required. The beginner should be able to cover a space with a uniform tint of ink or crayon; then blend other deeper-that is, blacker-tints until the paper presents a gradation of tones from faintest grey to deepest black. In this way a rich effect is produced, and the colour can be massed together instead of following out the shading

in detail. Ex. 9 is a wash drawing. If it is compared with the photograph on the frontispiece, it will be seen that the blending of the black and white is more brilliant. Ex. 7 is a line drawing pure and simple; the differences are obvious. In both line drawings and washes all sorts of brilliant effects can be obtained by a knowledge how to use

the materials. It is not absolutely necessary to work in ink alone; ink, pencil, chalk, or even oil and water colours may be used in the same sketch. This mixture makes no difference to the "process" engraver, who photographs it as it stands.

Charcoal and chalk differ from pencil in being softer and quicker to work with. When working with charcoal, chalk,

or ink, a few strokes are broadly dashed on the paper. These strokes can be rubbed over the surface of the paper wherever it is required with a piece of chamois, blotting paper, stump of bread, or rubber, and the finger-tip is also useful because it is sensitive. The charcoal, chalk, or ink would be rubbed over the whole of the paper sufficiently dark to form, say, a sky or background. Trees, houses, figures, furniture, etc., should then be drawn in roughly as regards form, but with the utmost care as regards their relative depth of tone to the sky or background. By the aid of the finger, or paper stump, the surface of the drawing may be brought to a smooth texture. Sharpness in the lights or white parts-even the most delicate-may easily be obtained by picking off the excess of black by the aid of the finger or stump. There are French and English mixtures to be obtained, used for fixing charcoal or pencil on the paper, if such may be deemed necessary.

In working out a wash or "half tone" drawing, otherwise called water monochrome, shapeless masses of colour are more important than finicking detail. With ink much care must be taken. The brush when dipped into this medium is worked over the paper, and, if possible without waiting for the ink to get dry, the shadows are put in, and the lights wiped out with a clean and nearly dry brush or the finger. Ink is rapidly absorbed by cardboard and soon sets, which can be discovered by its turning a dim colour. If it can be managed, it is best to finish a wash drawing whilst the ink is wet; after-touches are apt to destroy the fine grain which it acquires in drying.

Perspective-Simply Explained.

A DRAUGHTSMAN may be able to draw a man, or a chair, or an animal, and yet be incapable of arranging these objects in a consistent whole or picture. He is then told to study perspective, but he will find that he will need something like the faculties of a senior wrangler to grasp the geometrical intricacies of this science. In his bewilderment it may occur to him that the poor pavement artistcalled artist by courtesy-with his crayons exercises a rough kind of perspective, although he does not even suspect any of its laws. Later experience will unfold to him the fact that there are not a few pen-and-ink artists, and even Royal Academicians, whose knowledge of technical perspective in its involved mathematical form is anything but profound.

Most people have seen a Camera obscura. It is an apparatus which consists of a darkened chamber or box furnished with a lens, through which light is admitted. Inside, where the light comes to a point or focus, a screen is placed, and on this screen falls a correct image of whatever the scene outside may be. The picture thus obtained is in correct perspective-the part of the scenery or objects without which is nearest will be found towards the base or bottom of the screen, and the parts further away verge towards the top of the screen. It is this principle of reflection on a flat surface of a scene or object which is not flat, but round, or extending away from the observer, that makes photography possible, and with it perspective deals.