Civil Procedure, the Commercial Code, and a Law of Judicial Organization.

The Encouragement of Education.-The Ministry of Education is divided into two Departments, the Educational Department and the Ecclesiastical Department. Under the supervision of the former are three classes of schools:

1. Government schools maintained at Government expense.

2. Local schools maintained partly or wholly by local subscriptions.

3. Private schools.

In addition to maintaining its own schools, the Educational Department has set up model primary and secondary schools in the Provinces and established local normal schools to provide teachers. Courses of instruction have also been drawn up which, while giving considerable latitude to the local authorities, dictate the minimum requirements that a scholar shall be able to read, write, make simple calculations, and have some knowledge of his own country, and some vocational training. The number of Government schools has increased from 247 in 1913 to 451 in 1917 and the scholars from 20,712 to 34,525 in the same period. The local schools have increased from 3,144 to 3,299 during this period and the scholars from 88,936 to 144,693. In addition to the primary and secondary schools the Government maintains six colleges: the Civil Service College, with a total enrollment of 273 in 1917; the Law College, with 1,281; the Military College, with 767; the Naval College, with 128; the Police School, with 84; and the Post and Telegraph School with 24.

The Railroads.-The state railways of Siam are divided into a Northern Line from Bangkok to Pre and a Southern Line from Bangkok down the Peninsula to the Malaya border where connection is made with Singapore. The Northern Line, with a total capital outlay of 59,262,432

ticals in 1917, has shown a consistent increase in annual earnings of from 54,564 ticals in 1897 when first operated to 2,963,606 ticals in 1917. The total goods tonnage during the latter years was 367,461, of which rice accounted for 112,835 tons, stone 50,140 tons, timber 28,767 tons, packages 24,729 tons, merchandise 12,552 tons, and charcoal 13,265 tons, all other commodities totaling 125,173 tons. The livestock tonnage on the Northern Line included 118,204 pigs, 13,097 head of horned cattle, and a total of 133,475 head of livestock. There were 2,568,926 passengers carried in 1917, practically all of which were third class. The Southern Line with a total capital outlay of 46,578,025 ticals in 1917 has shown a much smaller increase in net earnings of from 245,246 ticals in 1904 to 703,725 ticals in 1917. The goods tonnage was smaller, amounting to 145,692 tons of which 20,032 tons were packages, 13,221 tons rice, 7,746 tons timber, and the other classifications in much smaller amounts. Out of a total of 38,137 head of livestock carried, 21,241 were pigs and 9,033 horned cattle. The passenger traffic was 1,661,111 for 1917. The through connection with Malaya will probably show greater tonnage and earnings on this line for 1918 and succeeding years.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the early influence of the Dutch and French in Siam.

2. What was the significance of Prince Mongkut's early training? 3. What was the reason for British interference in the border dispute between Siam and France?

4. Outline the present executive Government and the judicial. 5. Describe the growth of public education and railway development.

CHAPTER XXIV

PRODUCTS AND MARKET ANALYSIS OF SIAM

Practically the whole of Siam's 8,149,487 population is dependent upon agriculture and fishing for livelihood. During the hot season when the ground is baked and untillable and during the wet season when storms prevent sea fishing, other occupations engage some of the people, but these are of a minor character and include boat building, pottery, brick making, silk growing, etc. The immigrant Chinese have developed such small-scale industries as rice milling, distilling, sugar refining, mining, and forestry and they also dominate the retail trades and minor occupations of shoemaker, tailor, carpenter, tinsmith, carriage builder, bricklayer, shopkeeper, and pawnbroker. The native Siamese is by custom of long standing either a farmer or a fisher, and the more lucrative trades are thus easily taken over by others.

Rice. In 1918 of Siam's total acreage of 5,552,240 acres, 5,492,600 acres were planted in rice. The only other crops of which there are official records are tobacco, 22,012 acres ; maize, 14,320 acres; cotton, 7,940 acres; pepper, 7,418 acres; peas, 5,460 acres; and sesame, 1,442 acres. Rice, therefore, is the predominant product of Siam and dominates her social, political, and commercial life. It constitutes not only the principal, but the sole, staple food of the entire population. Until the introduction of European banking methods, the only means of investing money was in rice fields and nobles were graded according to the grants of rice land from the King. Rice is the principal subject of litigation in the courts and the prospects of the next harvest the

absorbing topic of conversation. It is the cargo of the river boats on the Menam River and of the ocean liners which load at Bangkok and from it the Government derives almost all of its revenue. The ancient invasions of Siam from Burma and Cambodia were actuated by the desires of one ruler to obtain the rice lands of the other. Rice, therefore, is now and always has been the great staple crop of Siam. There are four species: the common rice of lower Siam; glutinous rice, grown in large quantities in the north; "red" rice, so named because of its dark appearance when boiled; and hill rice, grown by the mountain peoples. These species are divided into as many as a hundred different varieties, the chief distinguishing characteristics being color, size, and flavor. The common rice is very popular in districts liable to irregular rainfall because of its peculiar ability to stop growing after reaching a certain size in the nursery and remain perfectly healthy until the heavy rains come to soften the earth. One variety of this species has been adapted to grow at an accelerated pace to keep above the rising waters when heavy floods occur. The straw acts as a float and keeps the head of the plant above the water, which throws out lateral shoots and draws added nourishment from the water. A crop is thus assured no matter how severe the flood or drought.

The rice crop is harvested with sickles and reaping knives and the sheaves brought to the winnowing ground on light bamboo sledges drawn by the plough cattle, which are also used to tread out grain on the winnow floor. Winnowing is performed by blowing the husks and chaff away, pouring the grain from a raised platform in the wind. The common farm implements used consist of a heavy knife with a handle at right angles for cleaning long grass off the land; a plough made of two pieces of wood bound together with cane and having a small iron share; a cattle drawn harrow resembling a large hay rake, upon the back of which the

driver stands; a planting stick used where the water is too deep for planting to be done by hand; an ordinary hoe; a sledge consisting of a light platform mounted on runners, all of bamboo and used in the lower plain where the water still renders the soil too soft for the wheels of a cart; and the reaping knife which varies in different localities. Many attempts have been made to introduce modern implements for the cultivation of rice and some iron ploughs and threshing machines have been imported, but they have not been favorably received by the conservative native. Lately, however, the Government has been experimenting with a tractor which would work satisfactorily on hard, baked soil, and enable the farmer to plow his land earlier than is now the case. The exports of rice from Siam have averaged about 1,272,000 short tons for the last five years, valued at about $25,382,000, although the quantity fell in 1919 to 946,700 short tons while the value rose to $43,560,000. The principal classes exported are white rice, white broken rice, and white rice meal.

Tobacco. While not entering into the export trade, a comparatively large acreage has been devoted to tobacco for home consumption. Some tobacco is cultivated in the rice fields during dry weather but the best crops are raised in the rich alluvial soil in the upper Menam River. The production does not equal the demand and considerable tobacco is imported. Since few precautions are taken to protect the crops from insects, it is often lost and the methods used in cultivation are so crude that good results are not obtained. The leaves are cut into coarse shreds and exposed to the sun on mats or racks. It is then manufactured into cigarettes wrapped in lotus flower petals for local consumption. ✔

Maize. This crop is grown in small garden patches throughout Siam and some fields are devoted to its growth. It is consumed locally and often dried and stored for feed.