English and Chinese officials on terms of international equality, as well as the resumption of British trade at Canton. But the Emperor showed no disposition to accept this decision, and issued numerous edicts offering rewards for Captain Elliott, Admiral Bremer, and other English leaders of the expedition. By May, 1851, 50,000 Chinese troops, unarmed, had gathered in the neighborhood of Canton, and after the British fleet off Canton had been attacked at night the war was formally resumed. Realizing that the only sure results could be obtained from the Emperor at Peking, the British fleet again sailed north, took Amoy, and after capturing Chenhai pushed on to Ningpo, Shanghai, and Chenkiang. In all of these engagements little resistance was encountered by the superiorly armed British. Peace was finally concluded in 1842 at Nanking on the terms demanded at Canton, with the additional demands of fifteen million dollars and the opening of the ports of Amoy, Foochow, Foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai to trade.

The Taiping Rebellion in China.-With the signing of the Nanking treaty in 1842, China showed no tendency to bow to the inevitable. Difficulties continued to be experienced at Canton which, because of its distance from the actual seat of the war, was not impressed by the results. Secret societies fanned the fire of rebellion, which the Emperor had sought to turn against the foreigner with such disaster. By 1853 organized raids on Manchu garrisons, resulting in the ruthless extermination of the whole force, were common occurrences along the Yangtze. The rebels, or Taipings, had now become firmly intrenched along the Yangtze and in March, 1853, under the leadership of Tienwang, began to march northward toward Peking. The reputation of these rebels for cruelty had become so terrible that their march was practically unimpeded by the flight of whole Manchu garrisons before them. In six months they had captured twenty-six cities and finally intrenched them

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selves near Tientsin, within a hundred miles of the capital. Being dependent upon plunder for their supplies, movement was essential to the life of the expedition, and when the fortification of Tientsin withstood their attack, the failure to reach Peking had to be realized. The way back to Nanking was now barred by Imperial troops, but the rebel chief managed to cut his way through. Li Hung-chang, who was destined to fill a large place in the later history of China, was one of those who headed independent bodies of loyal troops to harass the retreating rebels.

The rule which the Taipings now set up at Nanking was a veritable reign of terror, and this condition affected their field forces who gradually relinquished all of the cities they had held, except Nanking and Anking on the Yangtze, both of which were besieged.

In the meantime the British were demanding the right to trade at Canton, and the local Governor was obstinately refusing. In October, 1856, Admiral Seymour bombarded the city but only brought forth a proclamation calling on the people to exterminate the English. Unfortunately the British force was insufficient to occupy the city effectively and he withdrew and appealed to London for reinforcements. Lord Elgin was at once despatched with the necessary force, but was delayed in India by the mutiny. During the interval Admiral Seymour had attacked a number of Chinese junks, but his withdrawal only heartened the Chinese to renewed vigor. Finally on Christmas Day, 1857, Lord Elgin, who had finally arrived, despatched an ultimatum to the Governor and, after taking steps to warn the inhabitants, stormed and took Canton and captured the obstinate Governor Yeh.

Lord Elgin thereupon attempted to open peaceful negotiations with Peking but to no avail. no avail. An expedition against the Taku farts therefore was despatched, and, after the capture of these, Lord Elgin proceeded to Tientsin.

After much discussion a treaty was signed on June 26th, 1857, which provided for the appointment of a British Resident Minister at Peking, the opening of five additional ports to trade, and the legalizing of the opium traffic.

When in 1859 the British emissary entrusted with the exchange of ratification of this treaty attempted to reach Peking, his path was blocked and a British fleet sent against the Taku farts was severely defeated at Peiho. This called forth an ultimatum from the British emissary, Bruce, which was ignored and the next year an allied French and British force stormed and took the Taku forts. After the obstructions at the mouth of the Peiho River were cleared away, the party sailed up the river to Tientsin, where commissioners from the Emperor demanded the terms of peace. These were laid down by Lord Elgin as first, an apology for the attack at Peiho; second, ratification and execution of the treaty of Tientsin; and, third, the payment of an indemnity to cover the cost of the military preparations. After some delay and much negotiation, including a great deal of treachery and the actual capture of two British envoys, Parks and Loch, the treaty was signed with much ceremony on October 24, 1860. This treaty has guided China's relations with the West until the present time.)

Meanwhile the diversion of Imperial troops to meet the threatened foreign invasion in the north had encouraged the Taipings to renewed activity under the "Faithful Prince." City after city was taken until the whole country on the north side the Yangtze opposite Nanking passed into their hands. Hangchow was soon captured and Soochow threatened, when an Imperial attack on Nanking saved that city. At Li Hung-chang's request, an American named Ward assembled an army formed of Europeans, Filipinos, and Chinese and opposed the Taipings at Tsingpu, but was unsuccessful. By an agreement with Admiral Hope of the British Navy, the Taipings had agreed not to attack Shang

hai for a year, but on the expiration of that time besieged Shanghai. The allied forces which had lately opposed the Imperial forces near Peking now attacked their foes and drove them from the neighborhood of Shanghai. Ward's forces, now known as the "Ever Victorious Army," had grown to number 5,000, but in an attack on Tsuki, Ward was fatally wounded. After several failures, a successor was chosen in Major Gordon. Fushan and Changshu fell easily before him. After many vicissitudes, during which Gordon nearly resigned his command due to the parsimony of Li Hung-chang, Soochow was captured and a crushing blow dealt the Taiping cause. Hangchow was captured and finally Nanking, the last stronghold of the rebels, was taken together with the Faithful Prince, who, with the heir of the already self-poisoned "Heavenly King" (the high sounding title of the Taiping leader), was beheaded.

Turmoil at the End of the 19th Century in China.The period between 1860 and 1894 was marked by a series of rebellions, massacres, and local disorders, with which the unorganized administration of the Manchus was only partially able to cope. It was during this period that the French, in 1884, after a military campaign in Cochin-China, established a protectorate over the country south of Tongking. In their relations with the foreigners, the Chinese continued to assume the same supercilious hauteur and practice the same deception and deceit which experience should have taught them was in the long run of little avail. This attitude was assumed by the Manchus largely as a matter of self-preservation, for by fostering the myth that the foreign ambassadors were tribute bearers, their hold upon the Chinese was strengthened. It was during the later years of the Taiping rebellion that the collection of the Shanghai customs was placed under the control of three foreign officials, and a few years later the entire custom administration was by treaty placed under a British Direc

torate on the basis of Great Britain's predominant trade interests. American trade had developed until by 1860 fifty per cent of the foreign shipping of Shanghai was under the American flag. During this period the first railroad in China was constructed by foreign merchants for a distance of twelve miles between Shanghai and Wusung, while by 1887 extensive telegraph lines had been established throughout the Empire.

In 1894 the King of Korea appealed to Peking for help in putting down a rebellion in his domains. Without consulting Japan, whose relations with Korea were equally intimate, China landed troops on Korean soil. The Japanese likewise despatched troops and, although hostilities did not immediately break out, the Chinese insisted upon Japan's entire withdrawal, which was agreed to by the Japanese on condition that no further Chinese troops be sent. China failed to live up to this agreement and war was declared by both sides. The first battle of Asan in southwest Korea resulted in the rout of the Chinese. At Pingyang on the Yalu the Chinese were reinforced by Manchurian troops, but the city was taken by the Japanese, and in a subsequent naval battle on the Yalu River the Chinese were defeated. The Chinese were pursued across Manchuria, defeated at Hushan, and concentrated upon the defense of Port Arthur. This was captured by the Japanese who continued their victorious march across Manchuria. Peking now sued for peace and by the terms of the treaty of 1895 Japan exacted recognition of her equality with Western nations in China and the independence of Korea. As indemnity, the Island of Formosa, the Liaotung Peninsula surrounding Port Arthur, and two hundred million taels were exacted. Upon joint representation of Germany, France, and Russia, however, Japan waived her claims to Liaotung upon payment of an additional thirty million taels.

After the China-Japanese war the break-up of China was