that is worth while on every important phase of each subject. The arrangement of the material on resources and trade has been by commodities, so that the reference value of the book would be enhanced. No attempt has been made to cover any subject exhaustively, and the bibliographies are intended as a guide to further reading for the student whose interest has been aroused in any particular part of the work. The files of the Far Eastern Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce have furnished much of the economic material, and these are always at the disposal of those seeking further enlightenment. CHAPTER II HISTORY OF CHINA AND JAPAN DURING FOREIGN INTERCOURSE The Attitude of China and Japan to Foreign Intercourse. There is nothing more significant in the modern history of the Orient than the manner in which the two great nations, China and Japan, accepted the coming of the foreigner. Greeted wholeheartedly by Japan in 1542, the foreigner, by an undue zeal in spreading the Gospel, paved the way to his own expulsion in 1640, setting up a barrier against the West which was only removed by the influence of the American Admiral Perry's big guns in Tokyo Bay in 1854. China accepted the coming of the foreigner grudgingly, confined his activities to narrow precincts in the larger ports, and after a series of unsuccessful wars was compelled to recognize in 1842 the claims of the "foreign devils" to rights of residence and trade. What Japan yielded as the inevitable had to be wrested from China, but this fact would not have been of great consequence had it not been the origin of the attitudes toward the West in the two countries, attitudes fundamentally different and which profoundly affected the history of the succeeding century. When Japan resolved to throw open her doors and accept the foreigner, she decided at the same time to admit that the marvelous inventions that Perry had demonstrated before the awestruck Shogun on the shores of Tokyo Bay were evidences of a superior civilization. From that time (1854) onward, it became the resolve of the thinking Japanese to master this new civilization before it mastered them. China showed no such fixity of purpose. The only thought in the Chinese official mind from 1842 until 1911 was to seek every means to check the foreigner in his purpose of opening up the country to Western intercourse. Whether this was accomplished by intrigue or by open obstruction mattered little so long as the net result was to offset the efforts which the West was making to bring China into line with Western nations. China formerly had been successful in assimilating her conquerors by the simple process of passive resistance, but the flood of Western civilization which beat against her shores was too great to be overcome in this manner. The outcome was that China, almost completely dismembered and hopelessly stifled, sought to express in revolution her purpose to conciliate Western knowledge, fiftyseven years after Japan, foreseeing the inevitable, had gracefully bowed to, and very nearly mastered, it.、 Any other reading of Oriental history during the period of foreign intercourse fails to account satisfactorily for the present wide differences in the condition and general advancement of the Empire of Japan and of the present Republic of China. Opening of China.-Early in the sixteenth century China's loosely knit administration under the Ming Emperor Chêng-te had come in contact with the first foreigners who approached China from the sea, an expedition under the Portuguese D'Andrade, which arrived off Canton in 1511. The leader of this expedition went to Peking, where he was received as a quasi ambassador, but the outrageous acts of his followers at Ningpo and elsewhere led to his banishment and death. Soon after, in 1535, a massacre of Portuguese took place at Foochow. After much negotiation the Canton officials permitted the Portuguese to settle on the Macao Peninsula, just south of Canton, in return for an annual rental. Although in constant conflict with pirates and others, the trade was so lucrative that five or six hun |