General Smuts was extremely potent in for-
mulating the final draft, it follows him
chiefly in the matter of mandates.

The only other definite authoritative plan
when the framing of the constitution got
under way came from the American delega-
tion. Before going to Paris, President Wil-
son had prepared a tentative plan for a
league of nations, and in Paris he prepared
a new draft, possibly influenced by the
ideas of General Smuts. Mr. David Hunter
Miller, of the New York bar, had submitted
certain suggestions to Colonel House, the
President's most confidential adviser, be-
fore the President arrived in Paris. Mr.
Miller and Mr. James Brown Scott, long
associated with the United States Depart-
ment of State, had been the expert ad-
visers in international law attached to the
commission which, under the general direc-
tion of Colonel House, had been collecting
material on the peace settlements for the
use of the American peace mission; and in
January, 1919, Miller and Scott submitted
a definite draft for a constitution for the
league of nations.

On January 25, 1919, the Peace Confer-
ence, after an address by President Wilson
(see page 8665), created a special commis-
sion to draft a constitution for a league
of nations. The membership of the com-
mission was determined chiefly by personal
rather than by political considerations. The
chairman was President Wilson and the
other American delegate was Colonel
House: the two British delegates were
Lord Cecil and General Smuts; Léon Bour-
geois, probably the foremost French sup-
porter of a league of nations, was included
in the membership, which comprised nine-
teen. Finally, separate plans were drawn
up by the British and the Americans. Af-
ter some discussion, the problem of recon-
ciling the British and the American drafts,
and also the various opinions expressed and
acquiesced in in the commission's meetings,
notably the opinions of Wilson, Bourgeois,
Smuts, Cecil and House, was left to David
Hunter Miller and Mr. Cecil J. B. Hurst.
legal adviser to the British delegation.
Miller and Hurst agreed upon a draft,
which was essentially the tentative draft
submitted to the Peace Conference on Feb-
ruary 14 (see pages 8668 and 8669). This
draft was later altered in many particulars,
the changes being indicated by President
Wilson in submitting the final draft for
ratification by the Conference on April 28
(see pages 8681-8683).

This draft, adopted on April 28, 1919,
was embodied in the Peace Treaty submitted
to Germany on May 7 and signed by Ger-
many and the Allies on June 28, 1919. On
January 10, 1920, the date on which the
ratifications of the Treaty of Versailles of-
ficially became operative, the League of Na-
tions came into existence.

The Nature of the League.-The league is
a combination of sovereign states banded
together for common action rather than a
single world-state holding the nations in a
single allegiance and government as the
states are held in the United States or do-
minions within the British Empire. Thus al-
most all the decisions of the Council and
the Assembly must be unanimous to be ef-
fective.

The entire text of the Covenant of the
League is on pages 8673 to 8681, and a
brief
reading of the
text is the best
way to understand its structure. It is to
be noted that the most powerful body is the
Council, composed of the five great Powers
and four other states. The assembly repre

\sents all the member states-it may discuss
almost any matter vital to the welfare of
the League and the peace of the world, thus
focusing international public opinion upon
it; it admits new members and makes
amendments.

On the central theme of preventing war,
any dispute recognized as subject to arbitra-
tion must be arbitrated and the award ac-
cepted. If generally recognized as not ar-
bitral, the dispute must be submitted to in-
quiry by the Council, and if the Council's re-
port is unanimous it must be followed. Other
provisions for limiting war look to the re-
striction of armaments and the control of
the munitions trade, the guarantee of terri-
torial integrity, the full interchange of in-
formation, delay in declaring war even in
those non-arbitral disputes in which the
report of the Council is not unanimous, the
registering and publication of treaties and
alliance-understandings and the supervision
of the undeveloped regions of the world, by
mandates given to Powers who guarantee to
give equal opportunity in those regions to all
nations.

The sovereign nationalism of the member
nations to an extent is preserved intact by
requiring unanimity in most important de-
cisions, by allowing for withdrawal from
the League, by not interfering in disputes
solely within the domestic jurisdiction of
one of the parties to the dispute, by leaving
the measures for punishment of infraction
of the Covenant largely to the individual
discretion of the nations inflicting it and
by not establishing an international army
and navy. Other provisions call for the uni
fication of labor standards, constructive
action regarding the slave, opium, white
slave, etc., traffics, and prosecuting the work
of the Red Cross, postal union and other in-
ternational agencies.

The

The following states were members of the
League of Nations on January 10, 1920.
through having signed and ratified the
Treaty of Versailles: Belgium, Bolivia, Bra-
zil, British Empire (including Canada, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, South Africa, India),
Czecho-Slovakia, France, Guatemala, Italy.
Japan, Peru, Poland, Siam, Uruguay.
following states were members through hav-
ing accepted invitations to join: Argentina,
Chile, Paraguay, Persia, Spain. The following
original signatories of the Treaty of Versailles
subsequently joined: China, Cuba, Greece,
Haiti, Honduras, Jugo-Slavia, Liberia, Nicar
agua, Panama, Portugal, Roumania. The fol-
lowing states subsequently accepted the
original invitation to join: Colombia, Den-
mark, Netherlands, Norway, Salvador.
Sweden, Switzerland, Venezuela. The United
States and Ecuador declined to ratify.

The following states later joined the
League: Austria, Bulgaria, Costa Rica,
Finland, Luxemburg, Latvia, Esthonia, Lith-
uania, Albania,

The following states applied for admis-
sion but were not admitted: Armenia.
Georgia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Liechtenstein,
San Marino, Iceland, Monaco, Hedjaz.

The following states were not members of
the League by 1922: United States, Ger-
many, Mexico, Hungary, Turkey, Russia.
and Abyssinia. Afghanistan, Andorra.
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Ecuador.
Georgia, Iceland. Liechtenstein. Monaco.
Nepal, Oman, San Marino, Santo Domingo.
Tibet, Ukraine.

So that by 1922, there were 51 states in
the League and 23, of which 6 are Impor
tant countries, not in the League. The seat
of the League is Geneva, Switzerland.

and kipskins treated decreased from 19,735,-
549 in 1909 to 16,067,793 in 1914, or by
18.6 per cent; but during the same period
the cost of these skins increased $1,319,450,
or 4.1 per cent.

The falling off in the use of goatskins was
very marked. There were but 37,755,867
such skins treated in 1914, as against
48,193,848 in 1909, making a decrease of
21.7 per cent. The decrease in cost was
$4,011,054, or 14.4 per cent.

On the other hand, sheepskins and lamb-
skins show a large increase over 1909. The
number reported for that year was 26,177,-
136, whereas the census for 1914 showed
40,364,926, making a gain of 54.2 per cent.
The cost increased by $7,069,811, or 57.6 per
cent.

In addition to the foregoing, there were
tanned in 1914, 1,250,245 horsehides, 1,095,-
360 kangaroo skins, 233,180 colt skins, and
a number of hog, pig, deer, buck, seal, dog,
alligator, shark, elk, moose, and other skins,
the total value of which, $8,414,129, repre-
sents an increase of $4,611,638, or 121.3 per
cent, over the value reported for 1909.

The value of leather produced in 1914 was
$348,956,872, representing an increase of
$36,335,046, or 11.6 per cent, over the total
value, $312,571,826, reported for 1909.

Location of Establishments.-Of the 767
establishments reported for 1914, 130 were
located in Massachusetts, 120 in Pennsyl-
vania, 100 in New York, 86 in New Jersey,
30 in Illinois, 29 each in California and Wis-
consin, 28 in Ohio, 23 in Michigan, 22 in
Virginia, 20 each in Delaware and North
Carolina, 18 in West Virginia, 13 in Maine,
11 each in Kentucky and Missouri, 10 each
in Indiana and Maryland, 9 in Tennessee,
8 in New Hampshire, 7 each in Connecticut
and Georgia, 5 in Oregon, 4 in Minnesota,
3 each in Rhode Island and Washington, 2
each in Iowa, Texas and Vermont, and
1 each in Alabama, Louisiana, Montana,
Utah, and Wyoming.

Gloves and Mittens.-In the leather glove
and mitten industry there were 377 estab-
lishments reported in 1909, which gave em-
ployment to 12,950 persons, and paid out
$6,019.872 in salaries and wages. They
made goods to the value of $23,630,598,
utilizing $13,208,001 worth of material.
New York is the most important State in
the industry, doing more than 60 per cent.
of the total business in 1909.

The manufacture of leather gloves and
mittens as a factory industry was first
carried on in the United States in Fulton
County, N. Y., and this locality has ever
since been the center of the industry in
America. In 1909 41.4 per cent. of the
shops in the industry in the United States,
and 54.7 per cent. of the value of the goods
were reported from this county. Of the
persons employed in the industry 48 per
cent. are males and 52 per cent. females.

Shoe-Making.-Thomas Beard, the pio-
neer shoemaker of America, is said to have
arrived on the Mayflower in 1629, and for
his services received a salary of $50 per
annum and a grant of fifty acres of land.
Seven years later Philip Kertland began the
manufacture of shoes in Lynn, and in a
few more years Lynn supplied the Boston
market.

In 1698 the industry was carried on
profitably in Philadelphia and the colonial
legislature of Pennsylvania in 1721 passed
an act regulating the quality and prices of
the output. Most of the shoes worn by the
Continental army were made in Massachu-

setts. In 1795 there were in Lynn 200 mas-
ter workmen and 600 journeymen, who pro-
duced 300,000 pairs of ladies' shoes, and
one manufacturer alone turned out 20,000
pairs of men's shoes in seven months of
that year.
It was the custom of the manu-
facturer of the time to make weekly trips
to Boston with horse and wagon, taking his
goods along in baskets and barrels and of-
fering them to the wholesale trade.

It was not until 1845 that machinery
came into use in the shoe-making trade.
First came the leather-rolling machine, then
the leather-splitting machine, peg-making,
power-pegging, and the dieing-out machine
for cutting soles, taps and heels. In 1860
came the McKay sewing machine, followed
by the Goodyear turn-shoe machine. In-
ventions followed with such rapidity that
soon nothing was left for the skilled ar-
tisan. Labor in shoe factories today con-
sists chiefly in feeding machines and carry-
ing away the product; and even this is
accomplished by mechanical carriers. This
has led to the adoption of shoe-making as
an occupation for convicts in state prisons.
In 1870, before the protests of trade unions
began to be heeded, convicts in twenty-six
state prisons
employed in shoe-
making.

were

In the boot and shoe industry there
were 1,918 establishments reported by the
census of 1910. These were capitalized at
$222,324,248, gave employment to 215,923
persons, and produced goods to the value
of $512.797,642. Establishments engaged
chiefly in the manufacture of cut stock
formed about one-eighth of the total num-
ber, and the value of their products, $44.-
661,497, represented 8.7 per cent. of the
entire industry. Boot and shoe findings
formed more than one-sixth of the above
total. Very few industries have been more
affected by the introduction of machinery
than the manufacture of boots and shoes,
and to this fact may be attributed the
relatively small increase in the number of
wage-earners during the thirty years be-
tween 1879 and 1909.

The total output of boots and shoes in
1914 amounted to 252,516,603 pairs. Men's
boots and shoes numbered 98,031,144 pairs,
forming 38.8 per cent of the total. Women's
boots and shoes numbered 80,916,239 pairs,
constituting 32 per cent of the total.
Misses' and children's boots and shoes con-
tributed 48,322,395 pairs, or 19.1 per cent
of the total. Boys' and youths' boots and
shoes numbered 22,895,719 pairs, represent-
ing 9.1 per cent of the total. Fiber shoes,
which were not reported separately in 1909,
numbered 2,351.106 pairs and formed nine-
tenths of 1 per cent of the total in 1914.

In 1914, 387 establishments were owned
by individuals, 686 by corporations and 282
by others. But the corporations employed
78% of the wage-earners and produced 79%
of the value of the product.

There were in that year 137 establish-
ments whose annual product was valued
above $1,000,000; 567 whose annual product
was valued at between $100,000 and $1,-
000,000. Of establishments employing more
than 1,000 wage-earners each, there were
18; between 500 and 1,000, there were 67;
between 250 and 500, 140; between 100
and 250, 252.

The number of pairs of slippers, not in-
cluding infants' slippers and slippers made
from felt or other fiber, reported for 1914
was 17,733.689.

In the extent of the boot and shoe busi-
ness Massachusetts easily ranks first with
850 factorles, turning out $236,342,915

worth of goods, 46.1 per cent. of the whole, followed at some distance by Missouri with a production of 9.5 of the whole. The number of women in the boot and shoe industry in Massachusetts in 1909 was 28,922; in New York and Ohio each more than 7,000 and in Missouri 5,800. The number of children under 16 in Massachusetts was 3,335 and in Missouri, 1,392. In all of the factories women formed a considerable proportion of the wage-earners.

Exports of leather boots, shoes, and slippers for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1870, and for each succeeding year to 1910, show a constant increase from $419,612 in the former year to $12,408,575. Lecompton Constitution. During the struggle in Kansas over the question of entering the Union as a free or a slave state, the pro-slavery party held a convention at Lecompton Sept. 5, 1857, and adopted a constitution sanctioning slavery and forbidding the enactment of emancipation laws. It was provided that the constitution as a whole should not be submitted to the people of the territory, the vote being taken only on the main question of a constitution with slavery or a constitution without slavery. Free-state advocates refused to vote, and the constitution sanctioning slavery was adopted. Later the Territorial legislature ordered a vote on the constitution as a whole, and, the slave-state settlers abstaining from voting, it failed of adoption. (See also Kansas; Topeka Constitution; Wyandotte Constitution.)

Lecompton Constitution. (See Kansas, Government of.)

Lee, The, demand of Great Britain for surrender of mutineer in, referred to, 1808.

area

Leeward Islands.-A British possession in the West Indies, forming the most northerly group of the Lesser Antilles. The five combined presidencies have a of 716 square miles, with a population of some 125,000. The staple products are sugar and molasses, with some production of lime, cocoa, onions, tobacco and cotton. The imports and exports each amount to about $5,000,000 annually. The capital is St. John, on Aitigua.

Legal-Tender Acts, modifications in, recommended, 4302.

The

Legal-Tender Cases.-During the financial emergency caused by the Civil War Congress in 1862 issued $150,000,000 of Treasury notes, the law authorizing their issue making them legal tender for all private debts and public dues except duties on imports and interest on the public debt. constitutionality of the act authorizing these notes was frequently disputed, especially as to its application to debts contracted prior to its passage, and the Supreme Court was called upon in several State courts rases to decide the question. generally maintained the constitutionality of the law. The Supreme Court in 1869 (Hepbarn vs. Griswold, q. v.) maintained the validity of the law only in so far as it did not affect contracts made prior to its passage. A year later this decision was overruled, and the constitutionality of the law in its application to pre-existing debts was maintained. The court in the meantime had undergone a change in its membership, two new judges having been apv8. Greenpointed. (See also Juilliard

man.)

Legal-Tender

Notes, redemption of, recommended by PresidentGrant, 4303, 4379. Hayes, 4511, 4567.

Legation. The representative, or representatives, sent by one country to the court of another country with authority to act. The legation may be for a specific mission, but the term usually refers to an ambassadorial or consular suite.

Legation Asylum, action of American minister to Chile in harboring criminals discussed, 5867. Legations:

Military and naval attachés at, recommended, 4923.

Official residences for ambassadors
and ministers recommended, 6072,
6155.

Premises for, discussed, 4823, 4825,
4862, 4923.
Appropriation

for

erection of buildings on, recommended, 5494. Public documents or libraries in, referred to, 4070.

Secretaries at large, appointment of, recommended, 4923.

Legislation. (See Laws.)

Legislature.-The body of men in a state or kingdom invested with power to make and repeal laws. Colonial legislatures were generally modeled after the British Parliament, the Kings, Lords and Commons having their counterparts in the governor, the council appointed by him, and the representatives of the people. Parliamentary procedure was also followed closely. The first representative legislature in America The first met at Jamestown, Va.. in 1619. representatives were elected by voters havIn 1776 Viring a property qualification. ginia substituted a senate for its upper council, and other states followed. Lemhi Reservation, Idaho, agreement

with Indians for sale of lands on, 4779.

Leopard, The, attack of, on the Chesapeake. (See Chesapeake, The.) Leprosy in Hawaiian Islands, study of, recommended, 6921.

Letters of Exchange, international conference on, 7411.

Letters, Patent. (See Patents.)

Letters Patent, German, provision for payment of fees on, 8269.

Letters Rogatory, report regarding exe-
cution of, transmitted, 5570.
Levees of Mississippi River, preserva-
tion of, recommendations regarding,
3652, 4682, 4797, 7005.

Lever Act. (See Food Control Law.)
Lew-Chew Islands.-A group of some 55
islands forming part of the Kingdom of
Japan. (See Japan.)
Lew-Chew Islands:

Compact with, for securing certain

Good offices of United States ten-
dered China and Japan for settle-
ment of controversy regarding,
4521.

Lew-Chew, Treaties with.-A compact of
friendship and commerce was concluded by
Commodore Perry for the United States in
1854. Citizens of the United States, sea-
men, and others are permitted to go ashore
on the islands to purchase or sell articles;
ships may obtain wood and water on pur-
chase anywhere, but other articles may
be bought for them only at Napa. Sailors
may go ashore and move freely about with-
out molestation or espionage, so long as
their acts are peaceful and legal; for ille
gal and wrongful acts they are to be ar-
rested by the local authorities and handed
over to the captain of the ship to which
they belong, for punishment by him.
burial ground for citizens of the United
States is established at Tumai. Pilots,
appointed by the government of Lew-Chew,
shall conduct vessels in and out of Napa
for a pilotage fee of $5. Wood is to be
supplied to ships at Napa at a selling
price of 3,600 copper cash for a thousand
catties, and water at the rate of 600 cop-
per cash (forty-three cents) for a thousand
catties (six barrels of thirty United States
gallons each).

A

Lewis and Clark Expedition.-A party
of citizens and soldiers sent under command
of Captains Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark, by order of President Jefferson, to
explore the country from the Missouri
River to the Pacific Ocean. They ascended
the Missouri River to its sources, crossed
the Rocky Mountains, and, finding the
source of the Columbia River. floated down
that stream to its mouth. They explored
nearly all the territory lying south of the
forty-ninth parallel. This expedition is im-
portant as forming the basis of our claim-
to Oregon.

Lewis and Clark Expedition discussed,
386, 396.

Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition
at Portland, Ore., 6798.

Lewiston, N. Y.-Proclamation grant-
ing privileges of other ports to,
2319.

Pit-

Lexington (Mass.), Battle of.-On the
night of April 18, 1775, a detachment of
800 British soldiers under Col. Smith left
Boston to capture or destroy some military
stores which the Americans had collected
and stored at Concord, Maj. Pitcairn, who
led the advance, was opposed at daybreak
at Lexington Green, eleven miles northwest
of Boston, by about fifty minute-men under
Capt. Parker, who had been summoned by
Paul Revere in his midnight ride.
cairn's men opened fire and 7 Americans
were killed and 9 wounded. This was the
first blood shed in the Revolutionary War.
The Americans returned the fire and re-
treated, but rallied and pursued the British
toward Concord, capturing 7 prisoners, the
first taken in the war. On their return from
Concord the British were reenforced at Lex-
ington by 1,200 men under Lord Percy. The
Americans had also been reenforced, and
kept up a guerrilla fire upon the British,
who fled to Boston in disorder. The loss
for the day was 93 Americans killed, wound-
ed, and missing, and 273 British. (See also
Concord (Mass.), Battle of.)

Lexington (Mo.), Battle of.-Sept. 1,
1861, Col. Mulligan, in command of the
"Irish Brigade," stationed at Jefferson City,
Mo., was ordered by General Fremont, who
had recently been appointed to the com-
mand of the Western Department, to pro-
ceed up the Missouri River to Lexington,
Mo., 160 miles to the northwest, and re-
enforce the garrison there. Mulligan's bri-

gade reached Lexington Sept. 9, swelling the
force to 2,780 men. After the battle of
Wilson's Creek (q. v.) the Confederate Gen-
eral Price marched toward the northern
part of the State with a constantly increas
ing force. He arrived in the vicinity of
Lexington Sept. 11 with 28,000 men and 13
pieces of artillery. Mulligan's force was
well intrenched and was constantly expect-
ing reenforcements from St. Louis. Several
unsuccessful efforts were made to dislodge
them. The garrison suffered terribly from
thirst and many of the horses and cattle
perished. On the 20th Price advanced his
artillery behind the shelter of bales of hemp,
which the men rolled slowly before them
as they approached Mulligan's redoubt.
When this hempen breastwork was within
fifty yards of his lines, no reenforcements
having arrived, Mulligan surrendered un-
conditionally, after a loss of 39 killed and
120 wounded. Two thousand six hundred
men, including 500 home guards, laid down
their arms. The Confederates lost 1,400 in
killed and wounded. Col. Mulligan
twice wounded.

was

Libby Prison.-A famous Confederate
military prison in Richmond, Va., during
the war between the states. It was orig.
inally a tobacco warehouse and a ship
chandlery and was named for its owner.
It was taken down in 1888 and carried to
Chicago and there set up as a war museum.
Libby Prison, rent for use of building
known as, referred to, 3895.

Liberal Republican Party.-A defection
from the regular Republican organization
in 1870-1872. This party was opposed to
the strict measures of coercion adopted by
the Administration to maintain the newly
granted rights to the freedmen, reconstruct
the Southern States, and stamp out disor
der in the South. Uniting with the Demo-
crats in Missouri in 1870-71, it advocated
universal suffrage, universal amnesty, a
reform of the tariff, and a "cessation of
unconstitutional laws to cure Ku-Klux dis-
orders." At a national convention held in
Cincinnati in May, 1872, the Liberal Re-
publicans nominated Horace Greeley for
President and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri,
for Vice-President. The ticket was de-
feated.

Liberator.-1. The name of an anti-slav-
ery paper started in Boston in 1831 by
William Lloyd Garrison.. 2. A title given,
by common consent, to Garrison. 3. The
title afterwards applied also to Abraham
Lincoln.

Liberia.-The Negro Republic of Liberia
Is situated on the West Coast of Africa,
from French Guinea (8° 25' N. latitude)
southward to the coast and between the
British Colony of Sierra Leone and the
French Ivory Coast Colony, the eastern
boundary being partly marked by the right
bank of the Cavalla River. The extreme
geographical limits are 11° 32'-7° 33′ W.
longitude and 4° 25'-8° 25′ N. latitude.
The area is about 40.000 square miles, with
350 miles of coast line. The population is
between 1.500.000 and 2,000,000.