Underground Railroad.-A name common. ly applied before the Civil War to an arrangement whereby fugitive slaves were assisted to escape to Canada. The idea originated in some one of the northern states, and the plan consisted in harboring fugitives during the day and at night conducting them to the next "station" till they finally reached the border line. This "railroad" had many branches and the stations were a night's journey apart. The principal routes were from Kentucky across Virginia and Ohio, and from Maryland through Pennsylvania and New York. This system of aiding escaping slaves was partially organized in 1838, but did not attain its highest activity until the passage of the fugitive-slave law, about 1850.

Underwood Tariff Act.-The Tariff Act passed in 1913. (See Tariff.)

Unemployment Insurance.-Une m ploy. ment may be of various kinds. There is that of the unskilled worker, dependent upon the fluctuating demand for his kind of services, and the first to be thrown out of work in slack times. There is that due to the seasonal nature of the workman's calling. There is that due to the fact that the worker is trained for a calling which is dying out or in which machinery is taking the place of manual labor. There is that due to the fact that women and children, or cheaper immigrant labor, have entered the field. There is that due to the fact that the worker is more unemployable than unemployed. And there is that due to a depression in industry and a consequent decrease generally in the demand for labor.

From whatever species of unemployment, however, the worker may be suffering, society has come more and more to realize that the causes for his condition, even those which may be due to personal ineffi ciency, are social rather than individual causes; and that the responsibility for alleviating the distress due to unemployment is the responsibility of society. From this fact arose the movement for unemployment insurance, which attracted general attention in the United States for the first time in the depression of 1914.

On the Continent of Europe, most of the unemployment insurance is handled by local bodies. The most popular form seems to be the so-called Ghent system, in which trade unions which give unemployment benefits to their members are subsidized by the authorities. In 1911, Great Britain applied unemployment insurance to the building and construction trades, covering about 2,250,000 workmen. In 1916 occurred a temporary extension of the principle to other trades, notably those concerned with nunitions and other kinds of war materials, manufacture. On November 8, 1920, a new Unemployment Insurance Act came into operation, of which the salient features are as follows. including amendments as of March 3, 1921:

Per

Those Covered.-All covered by health insurance (q. v.), except outworkers, domestic and agricultural workers, and those employed under conditions which make unemployment insurance unnecessary. sons over 70 insurable, except those covered by old age pensions (q. v.). It was expected that altogether more than 12,000,000 workers would be thus protected against unemployment, including most of those earning less than $1,225 annually.

Contributions. From employer, employee and state, the first giving 6d, for men of 18 and over, 5d. for women of 18 and over

and 3d. for boys and 244. for girls of 16 and under 18. The second gives 5d. in the case of a man, 4d. in the case of a woman. 2d. in the case of a boy and 2d. in the case of a girl. (1d. equals two cents in United States currency.) The state contrib utes 2 d. for men, 24 d. for women and proportionate amounts for boys and girls. The payments are made through special stamps affixed to unemployment books issued to employed persons through the employment exchanges. These payments are made weekly.

Benefits.-15s. weekly for men and 12s. weekly for women. (1s. equals 24 cents in United States currency.) Contributors under 18 entitled to half the full rate. Maximum payment, 26 weeks in any one insurance year (after July, 1922).

Eligibility.-Besides the provision for annual salary under $1,225, the worker must prove that he is available for work and cannot find it, is not out on strike, has not lost his employment through misconduct on his part, or voluntarily, and has kept up his contributions.

However, a person is not rendered ineligible if he refuses to accept a position in an establishment where there is a labor dispute or where the wages are lower or the conditions of work worse than those to which he has been accustomed, or in a district at a wage or in conditions of employment less favorable than those generally recognized in that district by agreements between unions and employers, or than those generally recognized in that district by good employers.

Refund.-Insured contributors who have made 500 contributions on reaching the age of 60 are entitled to a refund of the amount of their contributions with interest, less any benefit paid.

are

Special Schemes. Arrangements made for industries of their volition to set up special schemes under this act, giving equal or superior advantages.

The British trade unions seem, on the whole, to have opposed these provisions, on the grounds that they were merely palliative, and did not attempt to decrease unemployment; that the relief granted was inadequate that the relief might be administered by non-tradeunion societies; that the discrimination between men and women was unfair; and that there was no allowance for the number of dependents.

In the United States, practically the only form of unemployment insurance at the present time is that of the trade unions and other voluntary, often fraternal, societies. Unie, island of, disposition of, 8837. Union Army of 1861-5, Societies of. (See Societies of the Union Army of 1861-5.)

Union Flags, return of Confederate and to respective States, recommended, 5163.

Proposition withdrawn, 5164. Union Labor Party.-A successor of the Greenback party. It was organized at Cincinnati Feb. 23, 1887, and promulgated a platform embodying the principles of the Knights of Labor. In 1891 it united with the Farmers' Alliance and other elements to form the Populist party. Union of South Africa.-This British dominion at the southern end of Africa ex

tends northward from the Cape of Good Hope to the Limpopo River on the east, separating it from Southern Rhodesia, and to the Orange River on the west, separating it from Southwest Africa and Bechuanaland.

now

History.-The Cape of Good Hope was discovered in 1486 by Bartholomew Diaz, the commander of one of the many expeditions sent out by successive Kings of Portugal to discover an ocean route to India. Diaz merely doubled the Cape and returned home. Eleven years later, in 1497, Vasco da Gama not only doubled the Cape and landed in what is Natal, but successfully accomplished the In 1652 the Netherlands Voyage to India. East India Company took possession of the shores of Table Bay, established a fort, and occupied the adjacent lands, in order to be always ready with supplies for their passing ships. In 1814 the Cape was formally ceded to the British Crown.

Natal derives its name from the fact of its discovery on Christmas Day, 1497, by the celebrated Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama. The first European settlement was formed (1824) by a party of Englishmen, who established themselves on the coast where Durban now stands. Natal was then a part of the great Zulu kingdom. Between 1835 and 1837 another settlement was formed by a body of Dutch Boers, who came with their wagons overland from the Cape Colony and settled in the northern districts, where to this day the Boers preponderate. In the year 1843 Natal was proclaimed British and annexed In 1856 it to the Cape Colony. erected into a separate colony, with repre sentative institutions, and in 1893 acquired responsible government.

was

The Transvaal was formed as the South African Republic by parties of Dutch Boers from the English colonies who "trekked" into the interior of the continent, and wrested the land across the Vaal River The discovery of from the native chiefs.

the gold fields within its borders led to the settlement of large numbers of foreigners, and eventually to hostilities with the British Government. A war of nearly three years' duration was fought with great tenacity, and its close was marked by the Inclusion of the South African Republic within the British Empire, "responsible government" being granted almost immediately. (See Boer War.)

The Orange Free State was founded, in much the same way as the Transvaal, by Boer emigrants from Cape Colony, and its independence was granted in 1854.

Between

Physical Features. The southernmost province contains many parallel ranges, which rise in steps toward the interior. The southwestern peninsula contains the famous Table Mountain (3,582 feet), while the Great Zwarte Bergen and Lange Bergen run in parallel lines from west to east of the southern province. these two ranges and the Roggeveld and Nieuwereld to the north is the Great Karoo Plateau, which is bounded on the east by the Sneeuwbergen, containing the highest summit in the province (Compassberg, 7,800 feet). In the east are ranges which join the Drakensbergen (11,000 feet), between Natal and the Orange Free State.

The Orange Free State presents a succession of undulating grassy plains with good pasture-land. Transvaal is also mainThe eastern provly an elevated plateau. ince of Natal has pastoral lowlands and rich agricultural land, with the interior ris

ing in terraces as in the southern provinces.

The Orange, with its tributary the Vaal, is the principal river of the south, rising in the Drakensbergen and flowing into the Atlantic between German Southwest Africa and the Cape of Good Hope. The Limpopo, or Crocodile River, in the north, rises in the Transvaal and flows into the Indian Ocean through Portuguese East Africa. Most of the remaining rivers are furious torrents after rain, with partially dry beds at other

seasons.

Government.-The Union of South Africa Is constituted under the South African Act, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom on Sept. 20, 1909. In terms of that Act the self-governing Colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange River Colony became united on May 31, 1910, in a legislative Union under one Government under the name of the Union of South Africa, those Colonies becoming original Provinces of the Union under the names of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State respectively.

The Union Government is seized of all State property, and the railways, ports, harbors, and customs are administered by Union Commissioners for the benefit of the Consolidated Revenue Fund. The former debts of the Provinces are administered by and form a first charge upon the funds of the Union. Provision is made in the Act for the admission to the Union of Rhodesia, and for the transfer to the Union Government of the administration of protected and other native territories. The Union was inaugurated by His Royal Highness, the Duke of Connaught, in 1910. The seat of the Government is Pretoria; the capital is Cape Town. The Executive is vested in a Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign, and aided by an Executive Council, with a Legislature of two Houses.

The Senate consists of forty members. For ten years after the establishment of Union eight are nominated by the Governor-General in Council and thirty-two are elected, eight for each Province.

The House of Assembly consists of 130 elected members, fifty-one of whom represent the Cape of Good Hope, seventeen Natal, forty-five Transvaal, and seventeen the Orange Free State. Members of both Houses must be British subjects of European descent.

The Governor-General administers the executive department through a cabinet of ministers of state, headed by a premier. He has the power to summon, prorogue or dissolve either or both houses. The Assembly originates money bills, but may not pass a bill for taxation or appropriation unless it has been recommended by the GovernorGeneral during the session. There are limits upon the amendment of money bills by the Senate.

Each province has an administrator appointed by the Governor-General and an elected provincial council. The restriction as to European descent does not apply to the provincial councils. Their enactments are subject to veto of the Governor-General. Both the English and the Dutch languages are official.

Area and Population. The area of the Union of South Africa is 473,096 miles, as follows: Cape of Good Hope, 276,966; Natal, 35.291; Transvaal, 110.450; Orange Free State, 50,389 square miles. The last census showed a population of 5,973,394, of

whom 1,276,242 were white and 4,697,152 were colored. There is a preponderance of males. The largest towns, with their estimated populations, are Johannesburg, 275,000 and Cape Town, 195,000. The Cape of Good Hope is the most populous province, and Orange Free State, the least.

The last census of occupations showed 342,000 persons engaged in mining; 290,560 in domestic pursuits; 192,424 in agriculture; 143,255 in industry; 81,627 commercial; 59,721 professional; miscellaneous and unspecified, 15,696. Classed as dependents, 492,959. White persons engaged in the government or defence of South Africa, 26,258.

The chief religions represented among the white population were: Dutch churches, 693,898; Anglicans, 255,640; Wesleyans, 80,402; Presbyterians, 58,633; Roman Catholics, 53,793; Jews, 46,919. Among the non-Europeans, the chief religions represented were: Wesleyans, 456,017; Anglicans, 276,849; Dutch churches, 204,702; Lutherans, 195,308; Congregationalists, 173,982.

There are some 5,000 schools for whites and 2,750 schools for colored, with 275,000 white and 190,000 colored pupils, and a combined teaching staff of almost 20,000.

Finance.-Recent annual budgets have been in the neighborhood of $100,000,000. The total gross debt is approximately $850,000,000.

Production.-Recent figures show an annual wheat production of 610,000,000 pounds of wheat and 2,530,000,000 pounds of maize. More than 20,000,000 pounds of butter and 6,000,000 pounds of cheese are produced every year. In a recent year, exports included 115,000,000 pounds of wool, 20,000,000 pounds of mohair, and $11,500,000 worth of hides and skins. The production of ostrich feathers is an important activity. Cotton-growing is on the increase, a recent crop being above 800,000 pounds; more than 100,000 tons of sugar are produced annually; and the almost 5,000 acres under tea produce annually more than 5,000,000 pounds of green leaf tea.

A recent industrial census puts the value of the annual industrial output at $300,000,000. There were 5.919 factories, with total capital of $265,000,000; value of materials used, $140,000,000; number of persons employed, 134,000 (50,000 whites); wages paid annually, $61,000,000. According to number, the principal industries are those concerned with the preparation and preservation of foodstuffs and drinks: metals, engineering and cutlery; clothing and textile production; and vehicle manufacture.

The total mineral production from earliest records to a recent year amounted to $4,000,000,000, of which $2,775,000,000 was represented by gold and $915,000,000 by diamonds. The other important minerals produced are coal, copper and tin. recent year, the mineral production valued at $260,000,000, of which $190,000,000 represented gold, $38,000,000 represented diamonds, $16.000.000 represented coal and $5,500,000 represented copper.

In a was

Commerce and Communications.-In a recent year, the imports amounted to $198000,000 and the exports to $164,000,000. In order of value, the chief imports were cotton manufactures, followed by food and drink and apparel. The chief exports in order of value, and exclusive of specie, were wool, diamonds, hides and skins. The imports come chiefly from the United Kingdom, fol

爵

lowed by the United States, India and Japan. The exports go chiefly to the United Kingdom, followed by the United States and Japan. In a recent year, the United States imported from British South Africa goods valued at $20,616,766 and exported thither goods valued at $60,939,159.

The railroads are owned by the state, and have a mileage of almost 10,000. There are 2,623 post-offices; 16,000 miles of telegraph line, carrying 54,000 miles of wire: and 3,215 miles of telephone line, with 130,000 miles of wire. Recent maritime statis

ties show more than 1,000 vessels, of 3,000,000 tons net, entering and clearing in the overseas trade and 1,775 vessels, of more than 2,500,000 tons net, in the coastwise trade.

Union Pacific Railroad, junction of, with Central Pacific, illustration, opposite 3856. (See also Railroads.)

at

Union Station, Washington, D. C. (See illustration opposite page 5635.) Union Veteran Legion.-Organized Pittsburgh, Pa., March 1884, and the National Organization was perfected Nov. 17, 1886. Encampments are now organized in twenty-one states and the District of Co lumbia, numbering 152 encampments. The membership is over 20,000. To become a member, the applicant must have been an officer, soldier, sailor or marine of the Union army, navy, or marine corps, during the late Civil War, who volunteered prior to July 1, 1873.

United Cigar Stores referred to, 7648. United Confederate Veterans.-An asso ciation the objects and purposes of which are set forth in the constitution as finally adopted at the Houston reunion, May 23, 1895. It is a federation of all associations of Confederate veterans, soldiers and sailors. The purposes are the cultivation of ties of friendship between those who have shared common dangers, sufferings, and privations; the encouragement of the writing, by the participants therein, of narratives, episodes, occurrences, etc., of the Civil War: the collection of authentic data for an impartial history, and the pres ervation of war records; care for needy survivors and their dependents. Member. ship is by camps, and numbers about 60,000.

United Daughters of the Confederacy. -The United Daughters of the Confeder acy was organized at Nashville, Tenn., Sept. 10, 1894. It is composed of the widows, wives, mothers, sisters, and lineal female descendants of men who served the Confederate cause. The objects are to unite, and to cultivate ties of friendship among, such women, to keep unsullied the record of Southern achievements in the Civil War, and to develop Southern character. It has about 100,000 members.

United Hatters. (See Loewe vs. Lawlor, et al.)

United Kingdom. (See Great Britain.) United Labor Party.-A local political party organized in New York City in 1886. It nominated Henry George for mayor on a platform based upon his theory that values arising from the growth of society belong to the community as a whole, and that therefore land values should bear the burden of taxation (see Single Tax).