the receipts and expenditures of the Goy- Revenue-Cutter Service.-The Revenue- Secret Service.-The Secret Service Dlvi- The arrest of counterfeiters number Supervising Architect.-The office of Su- Health Bureau.-The work of the Bureau For more detailed information of the Appropriations. Assistant Secretaries of the Treasury. Louis McLane, Delaware. 1831 Van Buren. 1837 1841 1841 Walter Forward, Pennsylvania. 1841 John C. Spencer, New York. 1843 George M. Bibb, Kentucky. 1844 Department. Robert J. Walker, Mississippi. 1845 Banks. W. M. Meredith, Pennsylvania. 1849 Banks, National. 1850 Bank Notes. 1853 Banks, Pet. Buchanan.. Howell Cobb, Georgia.. 1857 Banks, Savings. Philip F. Thomas, Maryland. 1860 Banks, State. 1861 Bonds. 1861 Buildings, Public. William P. Fessenden, Maine. 1864 Bureau of Engrav- Hugh McCulloch, Indiana. 1865 Johnson. Grant. Wm. A. Richardson, Mass. 1873 Benjamin H. Bristow, Kentucky.. 1874 1876 Treasury. John Sherman, Ohio... 1877 Currency Law. William Windom, Minnesota.. 1881 Customs. Arthur.... Charles J. Folger, New York. Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana. 1884 Duties. Hugh McCulloch, Indiana. Charles S. Fairchild, New York. 1887 Excise Laws. B. Harrison William Windom, Minnesota... 1889 Charles Foster, Ohio.. 1891 Cleveland.. John G. Carlisle, Kentucky. 1893 1897 1901 1901 1907 Hayes.. Cleveland.. Daniel Manning, New York.. McKinley.. Lyman J. Gage, Illinois.. Roosevelt.. Leslie M. Shaw, Iowa. George B. Cortelyou, New York. 1919 Taxation. Treasury Department: Appropriations for, transferred, 1254, under, should cooperate with, 8883. centred under, 8352. Government Laws governing, amendment needed in, 7469. 'Neutrality law enforcement authorized to, 7964. Reforms accomplished in, 7506. Treasury Notes.-To meet the expenses of the War of 1812, $36,000,000 in Treasury notes bearing 51 per cent interest were Issued. They were receivable for all duties to the Government, but were not legal tender. Beginning with the panic of 1837 and extending through the Mexican War, $73,000,000 were issued, and following the panic of 1857 there was an issue of $53,000,000. The exigencies of the Civil War required the issue of Treasury notes in large amounts. An act of Feb. 25, 1862, authorized the issue of $150,000,000 of such notes with a legal-tender character and not bearing interest. These were called greenbacks (q. v.). The United States seven-thirties, of which $830,000,000 were issued, were a variety of Treasury note. Treasury notes were issued to pay for the monthly purchase of bullion authorized by the Sherman Act of 1890. Treasury Notes. (See also Currency.) Appropriation to meet outstanding, recommended, 3073. Issuance of, 549, 2119. Additional, discussed, 3350. Payment of silver, 6078, 6176. Retirement of, issued in payment of silver purchased under act of 1890, recommended, 6078, 6176. Treasury Office of Accounts.-An important bureau under the Treasury Board as established by the Continental Congress. It was presided over by an auditor-general. Treasury Savings Certificates. War Savings Stamps.) Treasury, Secretary of: (See Death of, vacancy caused by, how filled, 5568. Plans of, concerning taxation, 8643, 8644, 8811, 8885. Power of, over deposits unqualified, 1227. Report of, 335, 464, 638, 652, 772, 800, 907, 909, 912, 1098. Vacancy occasioned by death of, rec War administration details vested in, 8368. Treasury, Solicitor of, office of, established, 1090. Operations of, referred to, 2539. Treaties.-The modern definition of a treaty is an agreement or Covenant between two or more nations or sovereignties formally signed by duly authorized commissioners and solemnly ratified by each. In ancient times terms of treaties were dictated rather than contracted. conqueror with an army at the gates of a capital stated his terms and declared his intention of remaining and inflicting such punishment as he saw fit until he received satisfactory assurances that his wishes would be carried out. A In the fifteenth century a jurisprudence of political treaties began to grow and was closely connected with the development of European statecraft. The treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, marked the turning point between ancient and modern diplomacy. Up to this time treaty negotiations had been based upon rights which had once existed and were recognized before rupture. After the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, the object of diplomacy was to establish a political equilibrium at the expense of preexistent rights and to maintain the status quo. The efforts of European diplomats during the early part of the nineteenth century were directed toward the suppression of the revolutionary spirit and the curbing of monarchical ambitions. Later the maritime rights of neutrals, suppression of slave trade, and the international emancipation of trade, navigation, arts, and labor became leading subjects for diplomatic consideration. The popularity of the principle of arbitration marks the latest step in diplomatic progress. The proposition made by the Czar of Russia in 1898 for the general disarmament of the world and the settlement of international disputes by a court of arbitration points to a culmination of the science of diplomacy. In this connection may also be noted Secretary Bryan's peace treaties. The first treaties of the United States were conceived before the Declaration of Indpendence was signed. Nov. 29, 1775, the Continental Congress appointed a com mittee on secret correspondence, charged with ascertaining whether, if the Colonies should be forced to form themselves into an independent State, France would enter into any treaty or alliance with them. On Feb. 6. 1778, two treaties were con cluded in Paris with France-a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce. On Oct. 8, 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded with the Netherlands, and April 3, 1783, a similar treaty with Sweden." Jan. 20, 1783, an armistice with Great Britain was arranged at Versailles, followed Sept. 3 by a definitive treaty of peace, later concluded in London, recogniz ing the independence of the United States. This was signed by David Hartley on the part of Great Britain and by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay on the part of the United States. Öther treaties concluded before the adoption of the Constitution were a treaty of amity and commerce with Prussia, Dec. 10, 1785; a treaty of peace and friendship with Morocco in January, 1787, and a consular convention with France, Nov. 14, 1788. In the United States the right of making and of ratifying treaties is, by Article II., Section 2, of the Constitution, vested in the President under the advice and with the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senate. The right of changing the terms and conditions of a treaty before ratification is claimed by the Senate. International law or the law of nations is very clear upon the question of treaties and of all the interpretations of its conditions. No treaty may be made which will in any way or in the slightest degree override the Constitution, or which will bind either nation to any terms or conditions that flagantly sacrifice the interests of either, or cause the nation to do anything morally wrong in the fulfillment. A treaty becomes binding at the time of signature by duly authorized commissioners, and if the ratification is delayed, such ratification becomes retroactive; though it may be specified in the treaty that its terms become operative only upon ratification. Where an ambiguity of expression or pos sibility of other construction of the terms of a treaty exists, no strained interpretation is permitted and the common use of the words is followed unless this, leads to an absurdity. Where two meanings are possible, that one is chosen which confers the least benefit upon the party who sought or demanded the insertion of the doubtful clause. When clauses impose hard conditions upon either party these are to be interpreted strictly so as to minimize the hard conditions; and where justice, equity, and humanity are favored by the doubtful clauses they are interpreted with broad construction, so as to confer the fullest benefits. The term "convention" is limited to agreements which deal with subordinate questions. Treaties are classified as treaties of peace, alliance, truces, com. mercial treaties, extradition treaties, conventions and protocols-a name given to less formal agreements between nations. Defensive treaties are designed to defend the parties mutually against the encroachments of others. Offensive and defensive treaties or alliances obligate tLe parties to aid one another at all times during conflict of either of the parties against the encroachments of other nations. Treaties of neutrality obligate the contracting parties to take no part in conflicts between other nations. Extradition treaties, which provide for the return of accused criminals, are described below: in When Washington was called to the Presidency he found the northern frontier of the United States occupied by British military posts and Spain making encroachments on the south. With the outbreak of the French Revolution, Spain joined England, and French sympathizers America were attempting to fit out privateers to prey upon Spanish and English commerce. Washington was urged to cast the fortunes of the United States into one side of the struggle. To avoid any entangling alliances he sent John Jay, Chief Justice of the United States, as a special envoy to London (page 146). Nov. 19, 1794, Jay concluded the treaty which has since borne his name. In consequence of the irritating conduct of M. Genet, the French minister at Washington, Congress in 1798 abrogated the treaties and consuAnother lar conventions with France. treaty was made in 1800, and in 1803 three conventions were signed, including the one ceding Louisiana. One of the most enduring treaties made by the United States was that of Oct. 27, 1795, with Spain, which stood for more than 100 years. This was the only treaty not swept away by the Napoleonic wars. The treaty of Ghent, signed in 1814, was Important as settling some disputed boundary questions, as well as concluding peace between the United States and England. No mention was made of the right of search and the impressment of American seamen, though these were the especial causes of the war. Other notable treaties made by the United States were the Web ster-Ashburton treaty, signed at Washington in 1842, defining the northeastern boundary between Canada and the United States, and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, concluding the Mexican War, by which Mexico ceded territory now comprising Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, a large part of New Mexico, parts of Colorado and Wyoming, and all of Cali fornia. The treaty with Japan in 1854 secured humane treatment for American sailors shipwrecked on the coast of Japan and the right to appoint a consular agent: it also led to the establishment of important trading privileges with the United States and Great Britain in 1858. The treaties of Tientsin, concluded In 1858, and the Burlingame treaty of 1868 opened China to foreign travel and gave protection to Christians within her borders. The treaty of Washington was signed in 1871, and settled questions pending between the United States and Great Britain. It submitted the Alabama claims to a commission of arbitration and adjusted the fisheries question on'a reciprocity basis. There was also a concession of important privileges by each of subjects of the other in America, and the question of the northwestern boundary of the United States was submitted to the arbitration of the German Emperor. At the close of the Spanish-American War, in 1898, Spain was forced to relinquish Cuba and cede to the United States the island of Porto Rico, together with Under the Philippine Islands and Guam. the Constitution treaties are made a part of the supreme law of the land and they have a legal status similar to that of contracts. Numerous treaties have been made with the Indians and with various countries on the subject f extradition. (See Foreign Relations and Treaties with the various nations following descriptions of the countries.) The Peace Treaty between the Allied and associated Powers on the one hand and Germany on the other hand, the Treaty of Versailles, was signed on June 28, 1919. The ratifications of it by all the countries concerned, except the United States and China, were deposited on January 10, 1920, after which the treaty went into effect. The treaty was submitted to the United States Senate by President Wilson on July 10, 1918. (See 8727.) After long consider ation, the Senate added a number of reservations, with the result that the treaty failed to be ratified by the necessary twothirds majority, by votes held on November 19, 1919, and on March 19, 1920. (See 8849.) The treaty of peace with Austria. known as the Treaty of St. Germain, was signed ratifications on September 10, 1919, and were exchanged on July 16, 1920. The treaty with Bulgaria, known as the Treaty Treaties (see Indians); for treaties with foreign nations, see the respective Alleged violation of, memorial re- Contract for proposed edition of, re- Power to make, vested in President Referred to, 2538, 2540, 4851. Request of House for correspondence Return of, requested, 4888. Secret Treaties.) Withdrawn, 4888, 4922. ties.) (See also (See Secret Trea- Trebizond, vilayet of, disposition of, Trent Affair.-In the autumn of 1861 the Trent, The, removal of Confederate en- Trenton (N. J.), Battle of.-Washing- men, crossed the Delaware River and on Trianon Decree.-A secret edict issued by Acts to give effect to award of, pro- Award of, discussed and recommenda- Case of United States at, prepared by Convention for settlement of claims Discussed, 5869. Enforcement of regulations in ac- Failure of negotiations of, to protect Reports of agent of United States to, Tribunal of Paris, killing of fur seals Tribute paid Algeria by United States Trieste assigned to Italy, 8704. Trinidad, vessels from ports of, duties 6503. |