accused at that moment of an intention to poison him, administered so efficacious a medicine that in a few days Alexander, amidst shouts of congratulations, led his army against the Persians. The two armies met on the banks of the Issus; the fight for a time raged fiercely on both sides; but at length the Persians were beaten back in confusion. Many thousands were taken prisoners, among whom were the wife, mother, and daughter of the king, who himself escaped with difficulty. The Persian camp supplied immense booty. After this Alexander marched along the Assyrian coast to the south, and in the year 332 B.C. destroyed Tyre, marched through the land of the Jews, subdued Egypt, and there founded a city which he named Alexandria. In 331 B.C. he again crossed the land of the Jews in a north-eastern direction, towards Nineveh, and encountered on his march the king of Persia, with a fresh army. The Persians fought with desperate valour; but by the superior tactics of Alexander they were put to the rout. Many were killed and taken prisoners; and in the year 330 B.C. the Persian king, while retreating before Alexander, was murdered by his own attendants. Province after province now surrendered. Persia, Babylon, Media, and every country as far as the Indus, made submission. By booty thus acquired the common soldiers, as well as their commanders, were enriched to such a degree that nothing but splendour and luxury would content them, and they gave up their minds

B. C.

330.

B. C.

326.

to the invention of all kinds of extravagance. Alexander himself grew haughty, and, deluded by the most shameless flattery, presumed so far as to demand, not only that the Persians should kneel to him (for they had long been accustomed to slavish usages), but also that the free spirit of the Greeks should deign to bend the knee, and award him the honour due only to the Most High. Calisthenes, who refused this slavish homage, was thrown into prison, and afterwards put to death. Clitus, the general who had saved his life, he murdered with his own hand, for daring to rank the achievements of his father Philip higher than those of the son. Still, urged on by a spirit of enterprise, Alexander feared no danger, and he now conceived a passionate desire to penetrate to the end of the earth. But a secret mutiny was now spreading among the soldiers; they no longer followed with their usual alacrity; and when, arrived at the other side of the Indus, he prepared to lead them across the Hyphasis, they all refused to a man; and in the year 326 B.C. Alexander was obliged to retreat. He therefore sailed down the Indus; and as at an earlier period he had become acquainted with brave and learned Indian princes, so now those farfamed sages of India, the Brahmins, attracted his attention. One part of his army sailed from the mouth of the Indus back to the Persian Gulf; the others marched by land across the burning desert, where many thousands perished. In Persia Alexander endeavoured to excite a spirit in the

323.

rest of his army, and gave them liberal rewards; B.C. but they still remained dissatisfied. Alexander now marched to Babylon, and had already made his plans and preparations for conquering every known country between the south and west, as well as the east, when death anticipated his designs, and cut short all his hopes of earthly glory in the year 323 B.C. As Alexander had appointed no successor, his generals divided his great kingdom among them, but not till after twenty-three years of war. Of these new monarchies, Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia, with the independent states of Greece annexed, were the most powerful; but as they were continually at war with each other, and thus impaired their resources, even before the Christian era, they were made provinces of the Roman empire.

CHAP. XXVI.

THE EARLY ROMANS.

SEVERAL centuries before Christ the Romans were B. C. as famed for a warlike spirit as the Spartans them- 753. selves. Their capital was the city of Rome, situated on the Tiber. Every citizen felt by birth a soldier; and though their territory at first was scarcely ten miles wide, almost all the kingdoms

750.

B. C. of the then known world in later years had yielded to their arms. In times of peace their chief occupation was agriculture, a pursuit in which it was thought no discredit even for the highest to engage. Their dress consisted merely of a toga, or flowing robe; for the climate of Italy is extremely warm, and this may account for the meals of the Romans being few. Their principal repast was between the hours of five and six. Their chief diet consisted of broth, meat, figs, and wine, usually mixed with water. Their temples, palaces, and houses were rudely constructed of clay and hardened bricks, and there was nothing beautiful in the arrangement of their streets or pavements. Their laws were severe and well administered. This brave-spirited people could not submit to the cruelties of their kings: Tarquinius, who had killed his predecessor as well as many noble Romans, was expelled; and thus ended the monarchical form of government. Tarquin made several attempts to recover his kingdom, but in vain a conspiracy was formed in his favour by the youth of Rome, but this was detected. A foreign king, whom Tarquin had induced to assist him, was repulsed, and the town saved by the bravery of a small body of the citizens. Horatius alone defended the bridge over the Tiber, and prevented the enemy from forcing an entrance into the city. Mucius Scævola penetrated into the enemy's camp, with the intention of killing the king, but by mistake he killed the secretary;

and when threatened to be burnt to death, he B. C. calmly stretched his hand over some burning coals 508. near which he was standing, and held his hand in the fire until it was withered by the heat. Fear and astonishment seized all who beheld him, and the king, revering so bold a nation, made peace with the Romans on easy terms. As security for the conditions of this peace, the king took hostages, and among the number many young women; but they soon escaped the vigilance of the guard, and swimming the Tiber regained their native Rome; and though they were all delivered up by the Romans, the king gave most of them their freedom. Nothing, however, could induce the Romans to receive Tarquin again as their king. It was not likely so warlike a people, once free from an arbitrary monarchy, would submit again to the richer and the higher orders; yet these were the classes that would secure to themselves the fruits of their victories, and exclude all others from civil appointments. But in this they were violently opposed by the people, who, after much civil commotion, prevailed; and from that time they shared in the privileges of the patricians. This success, however, caused them to grow presumptuous; they delighted in flattery, and allowed themselves to be bribed, and thus contending parties arose, which led to the most sanguinary civil wars.