1814. 1795 A.D., had gradually fallen into the power of A.D. the English, were formally ceded to them in the year 1814 A.D. CHAP. LIII. INTRODUCTION OF GUNPOWDER. A WAR is one of the severest calamities that can befall the race of man; nevertheless, so long as a selfish or ambitious spirit sways the hearts of nations and of princes, even those kings who are naturally devoted to peace are compelled to turn their attention to the most effectual means of defence. The weapons of ancient nations were javelins, lances, bows and arrows, slings, and swords. The defence used against these weapons consisted of helmets, coats of mail, and shields. The use of these, as compared with modern weapons, required a higher degree of personal courage, and wars were carried on with greater bitterness and animosity. The art of throwing at a distance stones or red-hot balls of iron had been discovered before the Christian era; but gunpowder was an invention of much later date, and though apparently known to the Chinese and Arabians long before the Europeans, still it was not by these nations used in warfare. In the year 1300 A.D. a German monk, named Barthold Schwartz, happened to try the experiment of placing some A. D. 1300. A. D. 1517. powder in an iron tube closed at one end, with a stone on the top of powder, which he ignited by a hole at the closed end; and thus the stone was projected a considerable distance. This is a description of the kind of cannon generally used in the wars which occurred about the year 1400 A.D.; they were then called mortars, though mortars at the present day are only used to throw bomb-shells. This clumsy weapon suggested the idea of hand-guns, which also appear to have been a German invention. These guns were at first only small portable cannons, and were fired by means of a match. At a later period, namely, in the year 1517 A.D., the German firelock was discovered: this consisted of a stop-cock with a pebble screwed into it, before which a steel wheel was fixed; this wheel was made to revolve with great rapidity, and thus strike sparks from the pebble. At last, the French discovered the stopcock with the pan, and substituted a flint for the pebble; thence the gun itself is often called in German "Flinte." Gun-flints are chiefly made from the flint of France, though some may perhaps be found in other countries, similar to those collected from the beds of flint found in Holland and the Tyrol. Great improvements have been made in cannons, guns, and pistols, since their first invention; and all these instruments have been improved both in convenience and safety. The introduction of guns into the art of war brings the courage of the soldier less into requisition, and obviates a great deal of unnecessary bloodshed. CHAP. LIV. PAPER-PRINTING-ENGRAVING-MEZZOTINTO - BOOKBINDING. 1300. THE discoveries which we have now to describe A. D. bestowed far greater benefit on mankind. First, Paper made of linen. Before the Christian era, the leaves prepared from the Egyptian papyrus reed formed the usual writing materials; then parchment was discovered, made of tanned skins of sheep or goats, artificially smoothed and polished. Subsequently to the Christian era, paper was made of cotton; this was a discovery of the Chinese, which was learnt from the Bockharians by the Arabians, and from the Arabians it reached Constantinople, from thence it spread to Italy and the rest of Europe. Cotton paper was thinner and more convenient than parchment, but was extremely expensive. The Spaniards were thus induced, in the year 1200 A.D., to try paper of cotton rags, and thus effected a material saving in expense. Last of all, the Germans, about the year 1300 A.D., succeeded in manufacturing paper of linen rags; and now the article could be supplied not only at a cheaper rate, but also of a much finer and more useful quality. Secondly, the art of Engraving. This is also a German invention, which originated in the fol A. D. 1436. lowing manner. Some monks had cut out the figures of various objects on wooden blocks, and after covering them with a black composition, took an impression of this outline on paper, and filled up the lights and shadows by hand. This art came into more general use when cards were introduced into Italy from the Arabians. To paint each card separately took a considerable time, and to obviate the difficulty, a German, in 1350 A.D., cut out a set of cards in wood. The cards could now be printed off with great facility, and therefore, unfortunately, they came into such general use, that even in the year 1360 A.D. cardplaying was a favourite amusement with the peasantry in Würtemburg. Since the year 1400 A.D., it has been one of the principal amusements of France; and most of our. fashionable games are of French invention. The art of engraving became still more important as it extended to woodcuts of single letters, and at last of whole pages, for impressions on paper. This method of printing was far preferable to the repeated copying of whole books, but still it was very slow and tedious; this, therefore, led to Thirdly, the art of Printing. This art was unquestionably known very early in China, but till the year 1436 A.D. it remained a secret to Europe. It was then discovered by John Guttenberg, a native of Mayence, by his own unassisted invention. In the year 1436 A.D., he made the first experiment at Strasburg, with a printing 1460. press of his own invention; also in the year 1440 A.D. A.D., he found that it was more convenient to cut the letters separately, and after arranging his type to touch them with ink and then take his impressions. In the year 1450 A.D., he formed a partnership with a rich man of the name of Faust, who advanced all the necessary funds. The partners took to assist them one Peter Schoffer, a clergyman very celebrated for his beautiful hand-writing. It was Schoffer who discovered the art of casting type; and also the composition of metals required, being at once sufficiently hard to bear the press without any tendency to cut the paper: he also discovered printers' ink. About the year 1455, appeared the first work ever printed with cast and moveable types; this book was a Latin Bible. Guttenberg, however, and Faust, disagreed; and in the year 1456, they dissolved partnership. Guttenberg died two years after, without having received any reward for his labours, though he had devoted all his energies, and all his fortune, in promoting the interest of science. The appearance of this beautiful printed Bible created great sensation. The monks, long accustomed to earn considerable sums as copyists, were loud in inveighing against the introduction of printing, and one and all accused Faust of having dealings with the devil. This accusation, monstrous as it appears to us, found general credence, because Faust had kept his art a secret. In the year 1462, |