1530.

of the first of these clocks, but one which did not a strike, but merely showed the hour, 996 A.D. The first clock that struck the hour was seen in Italy, 1300 A.D.; this, however, had no pendulum. The pendulum was invented by Galileo, a Florentine, 1600 A.D.; and a Dutchman, by name Huygens, introduced the pendulum into clock-making; this was a great improvement. Pocket watches are still more ingenious as a work of art; they were invented by a German, named Peter Hele, at Nuremberg, in the year 1500 A.D., and they were called from this circumstance Nuremberg eggs: in 1650 A.D. they were greatly improved by the Dutchman "Huygens.”

CHAP. XLIV.

HENRY OF SAXONY AND OTTO.

900.

AFTER the death of Charlemagne, Germany fell A. D. into disorder, partly in consequence of disputes relative to the succession to the crown, partly through the revolts of powerful nobles, and partly through the attacks of the Wenden and Hungarians, who were not yet completely subdued. It was evident that the kingdom was about to split into several smaller states. This actually

A. D. occurred in the year 900 A.D. Conrad, duke of the Franks, was chosen emperor in the year 911 A.D.; but he soon became conscious that he had not the knowledge required to govern a large kingdom like Germany, least of all when in such a state of disorder. In the year 918 A.D., he recommended, as his successor, Henry of Saxony, though Henry had previously been considered his enemy. This prince was elected; and no election could have been more happily made. He won the friendship of all the German princes by his affable demeanour, and restored them to unity and concord. He arranged with the Hungarians for a nine years' cessation of arms, and availed himself of this period to train and discipline his army. He also built many citadels, from which, at a later period, as many towns arose. In the year 926 A.D., he conquered the Wenden on the Havel, and founded the palatinate of Brandenburgh; and in 927 A.D. he founded also the palatinate of Schleswig, as a defence against the Danes. After this, he won over the Hungarians so glorious a victory, that its memory still survives among the peasantry around Merseberg. Henry died in the year 935 A.D. His son, Otto the First, was crowned and anointed Roman emperor with great festivities; and this dignity remained united with that of German emperor till the year 1806 A.D., when it became wholly extinct. The government of Otto was one of continued warfare; first with domestic enemies, then with Hungarians and Danes,

but more especially with Italy, where he deposed two popes; yet he was on all sides victorious. It was in this reign that the mines in the Hartz Mountains were discovered. Industry now received a powerful stimulus in Germany, and wealth and independence prevailed; still ignorance and superstition were not yet banished from the land. Otto died in the year 975 A.D.

A. D.

975.

CHAP. XLV.

THE GERMAN PRINCES AND THE POPE.

A. D.

THE Roman bishops, who, under the name of Pope, were revered as the true successors of St. 800. Peter, and the regents of Christ, had endeavoured, since the year 800 A.D., to become not only the spiritual but also the temporal dictators in all the courts of Europe. Their ambassadors were every where keeping watch over the actions of princes, priests, and people. They mixed themselves up with affairs of government; they even presumed so far as to utter sentences of excommunication, and absolve all subjects from allegiance to their prince: nevertheless, we cannot refuse them the praise of having restrained the most powerful and oppres

A. D. sive rulers, and of having successfully resisted the 1100. excesses of temporal power by their sacred and

spiritual authority. The power of the Popedom rose to its highest point between 1073 and 1085 A.D., under Gregory the Seventh, who already, as Cardinal under the name of Hildebrand, had ruled at the court of Rome. He declared himself to be the vicar of God, and as such he claimed apostolic preeminence over all kings and emperors, as well as the power both of giving and withholding crowns, being amenable to no earthly judge, and acknowledging his God as his only master. Accordingly he sent legates as his representatives to France, Spain, Constantinople, and Denmark. He emphatically forbad the sale of any spiritual office as the crime of simony; he allowed no prince to fill a priestly office; and declared that the Pope alone had the power to appoint bishops, and to invest them with the ring and staff, the emblems of their dignity. He also forbad any priest to marry. Through these laws, which he endeavoured to carry into effect, with the most uncompromising firmness, he put a decided bar between the clergy and the princes, whom he compelled to comply with his wishes. The princes the more readily acquiesced in these regulations because they were often at variance with their vassals, and feared the Pope would excommunicate them, and absolve their subjects from their allegiance. The only prince who resisted these orders was Henry the Fourth, of Germany; but

1056.

he was eventually obliged to comply, and submit A.D. to a severe penance. In the year 1056 A.D., Henry, who was then but six years old, became king of Germany. Some priests had artfully deprived him of a mother's care, and restricted his education, while Adelbert, archbishop of Bremen, particularly encouraged him in every inclination he evinced for arbitrary conduct. The Saxons, who hated the young king as a Frank, were treated by him with great severity. He deprived a Saxon count Otto of the dukedom of Bavaria, and kept the son of the duke Ordulph of Saxony in prison; in addition to this, he built many fortresses in the Saxon territory, and filled them with Frank retainers. The Saxons begged for some reparation of these injuries, and as he rejected their prayers with insult, they marched against him with an army of 60,000 men; accordingly he was obliged to fly, and sought in vain for succour. He now lowered that haughty tone, and by assuming a friendly mien he soon collected an army, with which he prevailed over his enemy in the year 1075 A.D. Saxons of the highest distinction were persuaded to give themselves up, trusting to his honour; but he made prisoners of them all, and confined them in fortresses. The enraged Saxons now applied for restitution to the Pope, who thereupon summoned Henry to appear before him as a vassal, and answer the charges made against him. Henry returned as answer that he considered the Pope as deposed. Gregory