armored-car services which transport money and other valuables are guards within the meaning of the act." Accordingly, the Chairman said, guards in these two categories must be placed in separate units to be represented only by unions which do not represent other employees.

Unfair Labor Practices

In refusal-to-bargain cases, the Chairman held that "the Board should attach less significance to proof of majority based solely on authorization cards and greater weight to proof of majority through a Board-conducted [secret ballot] election."

The Chairman also indicated that the Board should recede from its strictly held policy regarding the area of employer interrogation of employees as to their union sentiments. He did not think that such interrogation of itself is a violation of the Taft-Hartley Act.

In a case involving an unlawful strike, the Board upheld the action of an employer in refusing to reinstate strikers, including some who claimed to be nonparticipants. The Board ruled that an individual worker, "to protect his rights under the statute when an illegal strike occurs. . . has the affirmative duty to dissociate himself and to disavow the illegal acts of his bargaining agent."

The Board upheld individual complaints against an employer and a union in a case in which such workers lost vacation pay because of a traditional union-shop clause. The Board ruled that "such loss imposed, over and above the threat of discharge, to compel union membership, was an additional discrimination" not intended by the statute.

In addition to the decisional aspects of recent activities of the Board, the Chairman reported that more cases were being scheduled for oral argument before the Board members in Washington than heretofore. He also reported that the Board was currently "exploring three basic areas of decision: (1) the extent to which the Board should assert its jurisdiction; (2) the standards to be followed in permitting severance of craft employees from established bargaining units; and (3) the extent to which restraints should be imposed on preelection campaign activity on company property."

Text of the

AFL-CIO No-Raiding Agreement

EDITOR'S NOTE.-The following is a reproduction, in part, of the text of the no-raiding agreement which was worked out in conferences between committees representing the CIO and AFL. This agreement was ratified by the annual conventions of both organizations in the fall of 1953.

WHEREAS, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations have each accepted the report and recommendations of the Joint Committee [appointed to explore the possibilities of organic unity between the two organizations] and have each recommended to the unions affiliated with it that they subscribe to this no-raiding Agreement, which shall be enforceable by and against any union signatory thereto; and

WHEREAS, the parties hereto accept these recommendations, recognizing that definite, tangible and valuable advantages will accrue to each of them through the elimination of raids on their established jurisdictions;

Now, therefORE, the parties signatory hereto, in consideration of the matters set forth [above] and the mutual promises set forth below, do hereby agree as follows:

1. As used herein the term "federation" means the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations; the term "union" means any national or international union affiliated with either the American Federation of Labor or the Congress of Industrial Organizations which is signatory hereto and each of the federations; the term "local" means any local union, council, joint board, or other organization engaged in the representation of employes, which is a part of, subsidiary to or chartered by a union as herein defined, and also includes any Federal labor union, department, local industrial union, organizing committee or council engaged in the representation of employes which is chartered directly by either of the federations; the phrase "established bargaining relationship" means any situation in which a union or a local, as herein defined, either (a) has been recognized by the employer (which, for this purpose, shall include any governmental agency) as the collective bargaining representative for the employes involved for a period of one year or more, or (b) is certified by the National Labor Relations Board or other Federal or State agency having jurisdiction as the collective bargaining representative for the employes. 2. The American Federation of Labor and each union signatory hereto affiliated with it, and each of them, agrees that neither it nor any of its locals will, directly or indirectly, (a) organize or represent or attempt to organize or represent employes as to whom an established bargaining relationship exists with the Congress of Industrial Organizations or with any union which is signatory hereto affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (including any of the locals of such union); (b) seek to represent, or obtain the right to represent, such employes

or to disrupt the established bargaining relationship; or (c) engage in any cessation of work or refusal to transport, install or otherwise work on or with materials or any other form of concerted activity in support of an attempt to organize or represent such employes by a union other than the union which has the established bargaining relationship.

3. The Congress of Industrial Organizations and each union signatory hereto affiliated with it, and each of them, agrees that neither it nor any of its locals will, directly or indirectly, (a) organize or represent or attempt to organize or represent employes as to whom an established bargaining relationship exists with the American Federation of Labor or with any union which is signatory hereto affiliated with the American Federation of Labor (including any of the locals of such union); (b) seek to represent, or obtain the right to represent, such employes or to disrupt the established bargaining relationship; or (c) engage in any cessation of work or refusal to transport, install or otherwise work on or with materials or any other form of concerted activity in support of an attempt to organize or represent such employes by a union other than the union which has the established bargaining relationship.

4. Each of the parties signatory hereto agrees to file with the Secretary-Treasurer of the federation with which it is affiliated the name and address of a representative who is authorized to receive all complaints of violation of this Agreement. The Secretary-Treasurer of each federation shall transmit such names and addresses to the SecretaryTreasurer of the other contracting federation, who shall make distribution of such information to each of the unions signatory hereto affiliated with his federation. If any party shall fail to comply with this provision, the President of that organization shall be deemed to be such representative.

5. Each of the parties hereto agrees to settle all disputes which may arise in connection with this Agreement in accordance with the following procedure:

(a) Any union a party hereto which claims that any other union a party hereto (including any local of such a union) which is affiliated with the other federation has violated the provisions of this Agreement shall immediately notify in writing the representative of the union complained against designated in accordance with paragraph 4 of this Agreement, and shall also notify the Secretary-Treasurer of the federation with which that union is affiliated.

(b) The authorized representatives of the unions involved shall make every effort to settle the dispute.

(c) In the event the dispute is not settled within 15 days after the mailing of the notification provided for in paragraph (a), the Secretary-Treasurers of the federations, or their designated representatives, shall meet to attempt to achieve compliance with this Agreement.

(d) In the event that the authorized representatives of the unions involved are unable to settle the dispute within 15 days after the mailing of the notification provided for in paragraph (a), either union or the Secretary-Treasurer of either federation may, not earlier than 5 days thereafter, submit the dispute to the Impartial Umpire herein provided for.

(e) In any dispute submitted to him in accordance with the provisions of this paragraph, the Impartial Umpire shall have jurisdiction only to determine whether the acts complained of constitute a violation of this Agreement.

(f) A complaining union may withdraw its complaint of violation of this Agreement at any time prior to decision by the Impartial Umpire, in which event the pending proceeding shall terminate.

6. The parties hereto agree that the Impartial Umpire under this Agreement shall be jointly appointed by the President of the Congress of Industrial Organizations and the President of the American Federation of Labor. The Impartial Umpire shall decide any case referred to him within 30 days unless an extension of time is agreed to by the parties to the dispute or is requested by the Umpire and agreed to by the parties. The decision of the Impartial Umpire in any case referred or submitted to him under the terms of this Agreement shall be final and binding.

7. Each of the parties signatory hereto agrees that, in any case in which it is found that it, or any of its locals, has violated the provisions of this Agreement, it will cease such violation and will not, directly or indirectly, during the term of this Agreement, represent or seek to represent the employees involved, and that it will, in addition, take the following remedial action upon request of the complaining union:

(a) Any petition for representation rights filed with the National Labor Relations Board, or any other appropriate federal or state agency, will be immediately withdrawn. (b) Any claims for recognition which may have been submitted to the employer will be withdrawn immediately. 8. Each union signatory hereto agrees to be bound by the provisions of this Agreement with respect only to such unions affiliated with the other federation as are then signatory hereto or which may thereafter become signatory hereto. The parties further agree that any party to this Agreement to whom they are so bound shall have the right to institute such actions or proceedings as may be necessary to compel compliance with the terms of this Agreement only after exhausting all of the steps provided herein. 9. (a) The American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations agree that this Agreement will be submitted for approval to their respective conventions next forthcoming.

(b) All of the parties signatory hereto agree that this Agreement shall not become effective unless both of such conventions approve the Agreement and that, if so approved, the Agreement shall then become effective on January 1, 1954, as to all parties then signatory to it; the Agreement shall become effective with the respect to parties who become signatories to it subsequent to January 1, 1954, on the date of their signature.

(c) This Agreement shall not apply to disputes in which representation proceedings are pending before the National Labor Relations Board, or other appropriate federal or state agency, on January 1, 1954, and so long as such proceedings are pending. Both organizations will exercise their best efforts in the interim, to minimize such disputes. 10. This Agreement shall expire on December 31, 1955.

11. This Agreement, and its faithful observance is the first and essential step toward the achievement of organic unity between the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, a goal to which both organizations wholeheartedly subscribe. It is the intention of both parties to continue their joint meetings in the endeavor to achieve this objective.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto by the authorized representatives have hereunder set their hands and seals.

[Seal] (Place for signature)

AMERICAN Federation of Labor

[Seal] (Place for signature)

CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS

Earnings of

Shoe Workers, March 1953

PRODUCTION WORKERS engaged in manufacturing major types of footwear in the United States averaged $1.31 an hour in March 1953, exclusive of overtime and shift premiums. Earnings of individual workers varied widely, as might be expected in an industry in which incentive methods of wage payment are extensively used. For the middle 50 percent of the workers, earnings ranged from 95 cents to $1.55 an hour; for nearly a third, they were less than $1 and for a tenth, $2 or more.1

The 1953 wage survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics covered about 700 about 700 establishments employing 200,000 workers. Data were obtained from establishments employing a minimum of 21 workers and primarily engaged in producing any of 9 major types of footwear: men's Goodyearwelt dress, men's Goodyear-welt work, women's cement-process conventional-lasted, women's cement-process slip-lasted, women's Goodyear-welt, women's McKay (including Littleway), misses' and children's cement-process conventional-lasted, misses' and children's Goodyear-welt, and misses', children's, and infants' stitchdown.

Earnings levels were affected by the type of footwear produced. For example, in establishments producing misses' and children's cement shoes by the conventional-lasted method, hourly earnings were the lowest ($1.13), whereas in establishments making women's cement-process shoes by the same method, the most important product

in terms of production and employment, earnings were highest ($1.38). Workers engaged in making men's Goodyear-welt dress shoes, the second most important footwear product, averaged $1.32 an hour.

Gross average hourly earnings of shoe workers increased approximately 10 cents between August 1951, the date of the Bureau's previous survey in 14 important shoe centers, and March 1953, the date of the current study. Increases in occupational straight-time average hourly earnings showed considerable variation, as measured by a comparison of job averages for the 2 periods in the important areas producing women's cement-process, conventional-lasted shoes.3 Increases for these workers, most of whom were paid on an incentive basis, typically ranged from 5 to 20 cents an hour. In jobs employing about 10 percent of the workers, average earnings increased by less than 5 cents an hour.

Women comprised the major segment of the plant labor force, accounting for about foursevenths of the workers in the shoe industry. For the most part, women were engaged in the less skilled, lighter, and more repetitive tasks. Most of the men, on the other hand, were employed on the heavier and more skilled types of work. Hourly earnings of women averaged $1.13, as contrasted with $1.53 for men.

Characteristics of the Industry

The shoe industry in the United States is comprised of more than 1,000 factories employing approximately 220,000 workers. It has an annual productive capacity of 600 million pairs of shoes. The production in 1952 of 509 million pairs of footwear (valued at over $1.8 billion) was 8 percent above the 1951 output. Although shoes are made by several different manufacturing processes, the manufacture of women's cement-process shoes by the conventional-lasted method and of men's shoes by the Goodyear-welt method account for nearly two-thirds of the total production.

1 A detailed report will be published in a forthcoming bulletin. Based on estimates presented in the Hours and Earnings series prepared monthly by the Bureau.

For August 1951 survey data, see Monthly Labor Review, February 1952 (p. 172).

Facts for Industry, Shoes and Slippers, December 1952. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington,

The type of shoe refers basically to the means by which the outsole is attached to the upper of the shoe. For example, in the Goodyear-welt shoe, the outsole is sewed to a welt with a lockstitch seam. In the cement process, however, cement rather than stitching is used to make the sole attachment.

Although there is considerable diversification of products in the industry, there has been some tendency toward regional specialization by type and class of shoe. For example, New England has traditionally been strongest in the men's and women's categories; its production of youths' and boys', misses' and children's, and infants' and babies' types of shoes comprises only a small part of the industry's total output.5

Style is also an important factor, particularly in women's shoes, since it affects the size of the stock that must be kept on hand. Furthermore, style has a bearing on the seasonality of production which has been a major factor in creating surplus capacity.5

The basic wage incentive system used by nearly all establishments in the footwear industry is a piece-rate plan under which a flat rate on each operation is paid for each piece of work completed. All operations, however, are not placed under the piece-rate plan. In March 1953, 7 of every 10 production workers were paid on an incentive basis. All of the selected plant occupations studied-except maintenance mechanics, janitors, crowners (inspectors), and floor boys or girls— were on an incentive basis.

Collective bargaining has a long history in the shoe industry. It is estimated that between 50 and 60 percent of the workers were covered by the terms of labor-management agreements at the time of the wage survey. The two major unions in the industry are the United Shoe Workers of America (CIO) and the Boot and Shoe Workers (AFL). Nonaffiliated unions also have representation in the industry.

The industry is primarily concentrated in four

Monthly Review of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, November 1948.

The regions for which separate data are presented in this study include: New England-Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont; Middle Atlantic-New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania; Border States-Delaware, District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia; Southeast-Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee; Great LakesIllinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin; Middle WestIowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota; Southwest-Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas; and Pacific-California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington.

to 500 workers; few employed more than 1,000 workers. Two-fifths of these establishments were located in communities of 100,000 and over and a third in areas having less than 25,000 population.

Earnings Variations

Hourly earnings of production workers in March 1953 varied widely: 8 percent earned less than 80 cents; 22 percent, between 80 cents and $1; and nearly 10 percent, $2 or more (table 1). The middle 50 percent of the workers, however, had earnings ranging from 95 cents to $1.55 an hour. The earnings interval 75 to 80 cents an hour had the largest concentration of production workers (7.6 percent). This group of workers accounted for about 10 percent of the women and 4 percent of the men, all of whom received hourly pay at or