men are said to have been killed in duels, chiefly arising out of amorous quarrels, during the first 18 years of his reign. 8. Henry was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII., then a boy in his 9th year. Mary de Medici, the mother of the young king, who was appointed regent, disgusted the nobility by her partiality for Italian favorites, and the kingdom soon relapsed into the most fatal disorders. But the abilities of Cardinal Richelieu, who, after the king became of age, was made Pri ne Minister, soon effected a great change. It was his policy to promote rather the aggrandizement of the kingdom, than the true interests and happiness of the people. His three leading objects were, to subdue the turbulent spirit of the French nobility, to humble the power of the Protestants, and to curb the encroachments of the house of Austria. 9. The Protestants, alienated by persecution, attempted to throw off their allegiance, and establish an independent state, of which Rochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu laid siege to this city, which, after maintaining a most obstinate resistance for a year, during which 15,000 persons perished, was forced to surrender (1628). By this event, the civil war was ended, and the Protestant power in France finally crushed. 10. The cardinal entered deeply into foreign politics, influenced all the courts of Europe, and was continually engaged in vast projects for humbling his enemies, and extending his influence abroad, or in checking the designs which were formed against his power and his life at home. A rebellion was excited by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, supported by the Duke of Montmorency; but their army was defeated, and Montmorency executed for treason. Amidst all this turbulence and intrigue, the haughty and ambitious cardinal extended the glory of the French name to distant regions, commanded the respect of all the European powers, patronized literature and science, and instituted the French Academy. 11. Louis was so completely under the influence of Riche lieu, that his character is little seen. He acquired the epithet of Just; but if he were entitled to it, the injustice and cruelty of some of the public measures of his reign must be imputed entirely to his minister. 12. Louis XIV. (sometimes surnamed the Great) succeedea to the throne, in 1643, in the 5th year of his age, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, who made choice of Cardinal Mazarin for her minister. Mazarin was an artful Italian, whose excessive avarice rendered him odious to the people; but one of his greatest faults was his neglect of the education of the young king, who was instructed only in dan eing, fencing, and other superficial accomplishments. The ad ministration of Mazarin was signalized by the defeat of the Spaniards, and by intestine commotions, particularly a civil war, called the Fronde, fomented by Cardinal de Retz, and supported by the aristocracy. 13. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, being now 22 years of age, took upon himself the entire command and direction of the affairs of government, and entered on a vigorous and splendid career. The love of glory was his ruling passion, and this he pursued, not only by the terror of his arms and the splendor of his conquests, but also by his patronage of litera ture, science, and the arts; by his able administration of internal affairs; and by the extension and improvement of all kinds of public works. The capital was embellished, the splendid palace of Versailles built, commerce and manufactures encouraged, the canal of Languedoc, and other useful works, constructed. 14. The finances were admirably regulated by Colbert, one of the ablest statesmen of modern times: in the former part of his reign, his armies were commanded by Condé and Turenne, two of the greatest generals of the age; and the genius of the famous Vauban was employed in fortifying his towns. 15. For a long time, he was everywhere successful: he conquered Franche Compté, and annexed it to France; made great conquests in the Netherlands; overran Alsace; and twice laid waste the Palatinate with fire and sword. Such was the barbarous devastation, that, in the first instance, from the top of the castle of Manheim, 27 cities and towns of the Palatinate were seen, at the same time, in flames; and in the second instance, more than 40 towns and a vast number of villages were burnt, and the inhabitants reduced to the greatest extremities by hunger and cold. 16. In 1675, Turenne was killed by a cannon-ball; Condé soon after retired; and Colbert died. No men of equal talents arose to supply their places. The conquests of Louis had been made at such an enormous expense, that his dominions were, in a measure, exhausted. and his means of defence weakened. He had, by his unbounded ambition, by the violerce and injustice of his projects, and the alarming increase of his power, gradually raised up, among the states of Europe, a formidable opposition to his authority, which gave rise to long and bloody wars. 17. By the League of Augsburg, which was organized in 1686, Holland, Spain, Sweden, and the Emperor and several of the princes of Germany, were united against him. In 1701, the alliance against France, by England, Germany, and Hol. land, was formed; and a series of reverses marked the latter part of his long reign. His armies had now to contend against the genius of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, who gained over them the celebrated battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet; and at the peace of Utrecht, he lost nearly all that he had gained. 18. One of the most unjust as well as impolitic measures of Louis was the revocation (1685) of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry IV., for the toleration of the Protestants. By this barbarous act, all the Reformed churches were destroyed, their ministers banished, and every individual was outlawed, or compelled to renounce his religion. They were hunted like wild beasts, and great numbers were put to death. By this measure, the kingdom lost from 500,000 to 800,000 of her most useful and industrious citizens, who were driven into exile, and carried the arts and manufactures of France, in which the Protestants greatly excelled, to other countries. 19. Louis died in the 73d year of his reign, and the 78th of his age. His reign was the longest and most brilliant in the history of France, but not the happiest for his country; and his government was more despotic than that of his predecessors. "The greater part of his reign," says Anquetil, "may be considered as a spectacle with grand machinery, calculated to excite astonishment. Towards the end, we behold nothing but the wrecks of that theatrical majesty, and the illusion vanishes." 20. Louis was one of the handsomest men in his kingdom, and excelled in all the polite accomplishments. In his appearance and manners there was an extraordinary degree of dig nity and majesty, which were softened and tempered by affability and politeness; so that, if he was not the greatest king, he was at least, as Bolingbroke expresses it," the best actor of majesty that ever filled a throne." 21. He possessed great vigor of mind, and good talents, which were, however, but little improved by education. His morals were dissolute, and his ambition and love of glory were insatiable, and led him to violate the duties of justice and humanity, and to sacrifice the real interests of his people. He patronized every species of merit, and his reign, which regarded as the Augustan age of French literature, was less illus. trious for military achievements, than for the splendor of the arts and sciences. SECTION VI. The Revolution. 1715 to 1793. From A. D. Louis XV.; Louis XVI.: 1. Louis XV., great-grandson of the late king, succeeded to the throne, in 1715, in his 6th year; and the Duke of Or◄ leans was appointed regent. This regency is remarkable chiefly for the famous Mississippi scheme of Law, who formed a project to pay off the national debt by the introduction of a paper currency; a scheme which was ruinous to the fortunes of thousands. 2. Louis, soon after he came of age, chose for his minister the mild and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then 73 years of age, and retained his vigor till near 90. By his pacific counsels, the tranquillity of France, and even of the rest of Europe, was continued, with little interruption, for nearly 20 years. 3. After the death of Fleury, France was involved in the war of the Austrian Succession, which was occasioned by the death of the emperor, Charles VI. There were two claimants to the imperial throne; Maria Theresa, the late emperor's eldest daughter, who was married to Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany; and Charles, the Elector of Bavaria. The former was supported by England; the latter by France and Prussia. In this war, the French were defeated by the allies, under George II. of England, at Dettingen; but, under Marshal Saxe, they gained the battle of Fontenoy. Hostilities were terminated, in 1748, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 4. In 1755, a war broke out between France and England respecting their American possessions, which was terminated by the peace of Paris, in 1763, when Canada and the other French territories in North America were ceded by France to Great Britain. The remainder of this reign was chiefly occu pied with the conquest of Corsica, and contests between the king and his parliaments. 5. Louis died, after a reign of 59 years, at the age of 65. He possessed nothing, as a king or a man, that entitled him to the gratitude or affection of his people. In the early part of his reign, his subjects conferred upon him the title of Well beloved; but a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyranny, as a monarch, and of the most profligate debaucheries in pri vate life, induced them to retract the appellation. His reign resembled that of Charles II. of England, in its pernicious in fluence on the interests of religion, morality, and liberty. His own odious character; his attempts to crush the spirit of freedom; the prodigality of his government; the extreme profligacy of his court, - all conspired to loosen the bonds between the sovereign and his subjects, and prepare for the overthrow of all the ancient institutions of the kingdom; and the general uneasiness and the murmurs of the people indicated approaching storms. 6. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather, in 1774, at the age of 20 years. He was a man of correct morals, upright intentions, desirous of correcting abuses, but was wanting in decision of character. His post was one beset with great diffi culty and danger from various quarters. It was difficult either to do good or to continue evil, as the privileged classes were as little disposed to submit to reforms as the people to abuses. The finances, by reason of the long course of prodigality, were in the most embarrassed condition; and the people, irritated by the tyrannical conduct of the late sovereign, were now more than ever alive to their rights. 7. One of the first measures of the new king was, to remove from office those who, by their misconduct, had become unpopular, and had contributed to the distresses of the kingdom, and to replace them by men of talents and integrity. Turgot was placed at the head of the finances, and Malesherbes was made Minister of the Interior. These enlightened statesmen attempted useful reforms, which offended the courtiers and privileged orders; and, after a short ministry, they retired from office. 8. The celebrated Necker, a Protestant of Geneva, and a banker, succeeded Turgot, and pursued the system of economy and reform; but, becoming unpopular with the courtiers, he was displaced. The important office of the general control of the finances had now become exceedingly difficult to fill. Two financiers having attempted, without success, to supply the place of Necker, the office was given, in 1783, to Calemne, whe abandoned reforms, and made a boast of prodigality. 9 War between Great Britain and the American Colonies having broken out, many Frenchmen, among whom were the Marquis de Lafayette, and other officers and engineers, crossed the Atlantic to aid the Americans; and France soon after declared war against England. On the return of peace, in 1783, the difficulties increased; the enormous public expenses had brought the finances into the most embarrassed condition, and the government was reduced to a stand for want of supplies 10. Various causes had been. for some time, at work to pro |