CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ROMAN HISTORY. No. 2. From the end of the Commonwealth to the extinction of the Western Empire. B.C.31 Augustus, 1st Emperor: golden period of Roman Literature. 36 Caligula, 3, noted for profligacy and folly; is murdered. 41 Claudius, 4, a weak sovereign; invades Britain. 54 Nero, 5, a profligate tyrant; sets Rome on fire. Peter and Paul martyred. 63 Galba, 6, slain and succeeded by [69] Otho, 7; by Vitellius, 8. 1st 70 Vespasian, 9, a popular emperor. Jerusalem taken by Titus in 70. 100 79 Titus, 10. Herculaneum and Pompeii overwhelmed in 79. 81 Domitian, 11, a cruel tyrant, the last of the Twelve Caesars, Julius Cæsar being the first. Britain conquered by Agricola. 96 Nerva, 12, enfeebled by age; adopts Trajan for his successor. 98 Trajan, 13, a great sovereign. The empire in its greatest extent. 17 Adrian, 14, journeys through the empire; rebuilds Jerusalem in 137. 61 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 16, the virtuous Stoic philosopher. 2d 80 Commodus, 17, profligate and cruel; is assassinated. 200 93 Pertinax, 18, proclaimed by the Pretorian guards; murdered. 93 Didius Julianus, 19, purchases the empire; soon put to death. 17 Macrinus, 22, murdered at the instigation of Heliogabalus. 18 Heliogabalus, 23, a monster of cruelty and vice; is murdered. 22 Alexander Severus, 24, an excellent prince; defeats the Persians. 35 Maximin, 25, of gigantic stature. During his reign, Gordian I., 26, is proclaimed by the army; unites Gordian II., 27. 38 Maximus and Balbinus, 28; both slain. 38 Gordian III., 29, defeats the Persians under Sapor. 3d 44 Philip, 30, the Arabian, succeeded by Decius, 31. 300 51 Gallus, 32, with Gallus Volusian. [54] Emilian, 33. 54 Valerian, 34, taken prisoner and put to death by Sapor, king of Persia. 61 Gallienus, 35; succeeded [68] Claudius, 36. 70 Aurelian, 37, a great warrior, defeats Zenobia, the Goths, &c. 75 Tacitus, 38. [76] Florian, 39. [77] Probus, 40. [82] Carus, 41. 82 Numerian and Carinus, 42. 84 Diocletian, 43. The empire divided into four parts, under two emperors and two Cesars. The last and greatest persecution of the Christians. 6 Constantine, the Great, 44, 1st Christian emperor; removes the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople. 36 Constantine II., Constantius, and Constans, 45, three emperors. 61 Julian, 46, the Apostate, reestablishes the pagan worship, and attempts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. 63 Jovian, 47, restores the Christian religion. 64 Valentinian I., 48, emp. of the West. | 64 Valens I., emperor of the East. 4th 75 Gratian, 49. 83 Valentinian II., 50; Goths. 79 Theodosius the Great. 92 Theodosius, 51, the Great, the last sole emperor of the West and East: complete establishment of Christianity, WESTERN EMPIRE. ROME the Capital. 95 Honorius, 52. Alaric. 100 24 Valentinian III., 53. Attila. 5th 72 Olybrius, 59. [73] Glucerius, 60. 75 Augustulus Romulus, 62. Odoacer and downfall of paganism. 95 Arcadius. 8 Theodosius II. Theodosian Code. Invasion of the Huns, under Attila. 50 Marcian. 57 Leo, the Great, first emperor crown- 74 Zeno, makes Theodoric, the Ostro- The figures on the left hand of the emperors denote the commencement of their reigns; those on the right, the number of the emperor. Thus, Constantine the Great began to reign in 306, and was the 44th emperor. The most flourishing period of Roman Literature comprised the century immedi ately preceding, and that immediately following, the Christian era. THE MIDDLE AGES. 1. THE Middle Ages comprise a period of about a thousand years, from the 5th to the 15th century; or from the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans to that of the Eastern Empire. During these centuries, Europe was sunk in ignorance, barbarism, and superstition; hence this period is styled the Dark Ages. 2. The migration of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarous nations from the north of Europe, took place in the latter part of the 4th century, and the beginning of the 5th. These barbarians possessed themselves of the middle and south of Europe; and in less than one hundred years after this event, almost all learning and civilization disappeared. Literature had been gradually declining since the reign of Augustus; yet considerable remains of it existed in the Roman Empire till after the fall of the capital before the arms of the Goths. The darkest period was from the 6th century to the 12th. 3. In these dark and miserable times, the human mind was neglected and debased; books were extremely scarce, and were procured only at an immense price, the cost of a single volume being equal to that of a good house; the common people were wholly uneducated; many persons of the highest rank, and in the most important stations, were unable to read; and contracts were made verbally for the want of persons capable of writing them. The learning which existed was confined chiefly to ecclesiastics and monks; yet many priests did not understand the service which it was their duty daily to recite; and many bishops had never seen a copy of the Bible during their lives. 4. The state of morals, both among the clergy and laity, was exceedingly low; and Christianity had lost most of its original excellence, and was corrupted into a degrading su perstition. The political state of Europe was also character ized by anarchy, violence, and rapine. 5. The absurd modes of trial by single combat or duel, and also by ordeal, that is, by walking blindfold over hot bars of iron, or being thrown into the water, were commonly used as methods of discovering guilt and innocence. 6. The most considerable empire that existed in Europe dur ing the Middle Ages was the New Empire of the West, which was established by Charlemagne, but which was not of long duration. It was during these ages that the famous and success ful impostor Ma'homet appeared, and the Mahometan or Sara. cen Empire flourished. From the 8th to the 13th centuries the Saracens surpassed all their contemporaries in the cultiva. tion of literature and science. 7. Some of the most remarkable circumstances which characterize the history of Europe and the state of society, during this period, are, the Feudal System, the Crusades, and Chivalry THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 1. Before the time of Ma'homet, the Arabians were a rude nation, living generally in independent tribes, who traced their descent from Ishmael, and professed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry. They had had, as a nation but little intercourse with the neighboring kingdoms. 2. The Saracens, however, a warlike tribe of Arabs who in habited the western part of Arabia, had, before this period, been induced, by the hope of plunder, to forsake their deserts, and had become alternately the support and terror of the tottering empires of Rome and Persia. They were in the habit of selling their services, as mercenaries, to those who would pay most liberally; and their name was applied, by Christian authors of the Middle Ages, to the Arabian nations generally, who were the first disciples of Mahomet; and who, within 50 years after his death, conquered a considerable part of Asia und Africa, and some portions of Europe; but the descendents of the Arabs, who subdued and possessed themselves of Spain, have been styled Moors. 3. Arabia had afforded an asylum to the persecuted Christians of different sects; and, at the end of the 6th century, Christianity had become the prevailing religion in some parts of the country. It was, however, a most corrupt form of Christianity, inculcating the worship of saints and images, with many other absurd and superstitious ceremonies; and among both the priests and the people, a general depravity of manners prevailed. 4. Such was the state of Arabia, when Ma'homet or Moham'med, that most extraordinary and successful impostor, appear ed. He was a native of Mecca, a man of no education but of great natural talents. In 609, when about 40 years of age, he pretended to have received a divine commission to propagate a new region. He withdrew to a place of retirement, where he affirmed that he held conferences with the angel Gabriel. These discourses were collected into a volume called the Koran, or Alcoran, which is the Mahometan bible. Ma'homet performed no miracles, but appealed chiefly to the excellence of the doctrine contained in the Koran, and to the elegance of its style, as proofs of its inspiration. 5. The two leading doctrines of his religion were these, namely," There is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet." He taught that others, at various times, as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, had been divinely commissioned to teach mankind; but that he himself was the last and greatest of the prophets. He adopted much of the morality of the Gospel, and retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the Arabian superstitions, particularly the pilgrimage to Mecca. But he owed his success, in a great measure, to his allowing his followers great latitude in licentious indulgences, and to his promising them, as their future reward, a paradise of sensual pleasures. 6. He propagated his religion by the sword, stimulated the courage of his followers by inculcating the strictest predestinarianism or fatalism, and roused their enthusiasm by the assurance of a martyr's crown to every one who should fall in battle. It was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine, that "to fight for the faith was an act of obedience to God"; hence the Mahometans or Saracens denominated their ferocious and blooly ravages holy wars. They term their religion Islam or Islamism; and call themselves Mussulmans or Moslems, that is, true believers or orthodox. 7. Mahomet, in the beginning of his efforts, had but little success in making proselytes. His first converts were his wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his cousin and son-in-law the famous Ali, and his father-in-law Abu-beker, who was a man of influence. These, together with ten others, were all whom he had persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his mission, at the erd of three years. 8. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, he was compelled, in order to save his life, to escape; and he fled in disguise to Medina. His flight, or Hegira, is the Mahom |