and new species of plants will not, with them, obtain recognition as published, unless the diagnoses of them be in Latin.

This ruling of the Vienna congress has quite startled the botanical public on our side of the Atlantic, if one may judge by the comments one hears; and the present writer, being one who has published many new generic propositions, and an exceedingly long list of species, all in English-and next to none at all in Latin-has already been asked repeatedly for his opinion as to this regulation.

Now as to the fact of its having come to us as a surprise; I think that our twentieth-century generation botanist is the only one to whom such a resolution would have come as a surprise. Anyhow, all of us who are familiar with the work of the great American botanists of the last half of the nineteenth century know that with them-Torrey, Engelmann, Gray, Tuckermann and several lesser names-the descriptions of their new genera and species were published in Latin; the only exceptional instances being those of their coming upon new types in the course of the publication of books and manuals intended primarily for the use of an English-speaking public, and in which only a few of the genera and species were new. And if we go back to still earlier generations we find that even the whole flora of North America, when done in book form, was done in Latin, as to the essential characters of all the genera and all the species, both old and new. Need one name Walter's 'Flora Caroliniana,' Michaux's, Pursh's and Hooker's immortal classics on the botany of an English-speaking land?

It

And the reason is readily manifest. Latin is, and has always been, the official language of systematic botany; the one and only language which all systematic botanists are supposed to be able to read and understand. is our universal medium of expression. It is, therefore, hardly reasonable to expect that important contributions shall obtain wide recognition unless given in that official language. Or, if that seem too dogmatic, disputed it can not be, that a botanical book, or page, or paragraph published in Latin obtains at least a much wider and more general publication

than it can attain to in any other language. This is why every great standard of taxonomy, at present, as through the past, is sure to be in Latin. But, as has been intimated, 'every extension of a plant genus, and every attempt to indicate and circumscribe a new group, is an important item, a new landmark, so to speak, in the progress of botany; and if important, the character should be given in Latin. Botanists, one and all, and to the ends of the earth, seem to me to have the right to demand this.

I have within the last decade heard now and then a complaint made by one and another of my American colleagues, that in Europe, and especially on the continent, due recognition has not been given to our contributions to taxonomy; and I have sympathized; but within the last two years, in the course of correspondence, it has become known to me that, in many an instance, the monographer who may have seemed to make little of a given piece of my own or some other man's work, has only done so because he could not pause in the midst of his own work to learn English well enough to be able to read understandingly our diagnoses. Of this aspect of the case I can not forego the mention of one illustration. The man across the sea, being obliged to make use of a new monograph of a certain genus, fell into something nearing despair at the number of new species, and expressed frankly a fear that few, if any, of them could be valid. Less than a half year later came word that the diagnoses were found susceptible of translation into Latin; that he had himself done the labor of translating them; that he now understood them and could not controvert the validity of the species. It was really, all the while, a sort of unwritten law in botany, that diagnoses of new types should appear in Latin. To this day the botanists of Norway and Sweden, Finland and Russia and Japan, and all the way back again to southern and middle Europe, not excepting those of England and Ireland, do almost invariably, even in their monthly journals, give the characters of new forms in Latin. The law has been violated now and then and here and there in Europe, but we on

our side the Atlantic, since the passing of the fathers of the last generation, have quite recklessly transgressed, and I, as one of the chief among the transgressors, acknowledge the justice of the reprimand.

It will be questioned that the Vienna congress was truly and fairly international. Many will deny that its regulations are of binding force; and let all that even be denied. Yet the laws that are unwritten are sometimes, it may be, the most binding of all; and I can but regard this expression of the. congress as its most important pronouncement; and viewed-if one so view it as a mere recommendation, it is a most wholesome EDW. L. GREENE.

one.

NATIONAL MUSEUM, WASHINGTON, D. C.

FLEAS AND DISEASE.

A NEW and very striking interest now attaches to investigations relative to the connection of fleas with the transmission of disease, in view of the recent specific statements that have been made in connection with the transmission of leprosy by these insects. It is perfectly true that we have very little definite knowledge of the whole matter and that opinions so far expressed are almost purely theoretical. An excellent historical résumé of the subject is given by Dr. Herzog in Bulletin No. 23 of the Bureau of Government Laboratories at Manila. He tells of various efforts to find plague bacilli in fleas or to produce the disease by allowing fleas from diseased rats to bite healthy individuals. Here he might have referred back to Yersin's experience in failing to find the bacilli in the blood from other parts of the body when they were multitudinous in the buboes, and he should have suggested that a flea might have a similar experience. Such a view-point might invalidate much if not most of the experimental work so far accomplished. The 'severe and just' criticisms of Galli-Valerio, made at a time when he was not even acquainted with the species of fleas infesting rats in regions ravaged by the plague, are scarcely worthy of consideration one way or the other. The only serious work on the subject was begun at Syd

ney, where there was a proper effort to first know the fleas and then to determine if any of the species infesting rats would also bite human beings. Investigators there found Pulex pallidus common on rats. This is a very near relative of P. irritans and was experimentally determined as able and willing to bite human beings, as might have been expected theoretically. The singling out of this species from all the others found there on rats was a distinct step in advance.

The verdict of the Indian Plague Commission was: No evidence, one way or the other. Indeed, all the way through this discussion, a point that strikes the unprejudiced reader more strongly than any other is the startling paucity of facts-actual observations and experiments-on which all the theories, for and against, have been built. Apparently the most categorical statements are coming from men who do not know the rat fleas of the tropics and subtropics at all. Dr. Herzog adds nothing in the way of adequate experiment, but submits the description of a new rat flea-Pulex philippinensis-which may or may not be new, since the description does not include a single diagnostic character to make possible comparisons with any other species. The photographs presented, which are exceedingly poor in detail, indicate a form extremely close to Pulex irritans, the flea specific to human beings, which species has, by the way, been taken from rats, cats, dogs, foxes and other animals in regions where it is abundant, a fact of striking importance in this investigation.

There are some most important aspects of the case which have as yet not been considered at all. Most fleas are epicures in their bloodsucking habits where mosquitoes are gluttons. They do not settle and gorge themselves, as do the mosquitoes, but pass rapidly from place to place and bite often. A single flea has been observed to bite so as to leave a dozen or more inflamed spots in as many minutes and yet its abdomen show no extraordinary dilation. The flea possesses a remarkable puncturing apparatus, portions having the appearance of a double-edged saw, with an intricately developed serration. It seems likely that the

flea would have difficulty in wiping its mouth clean after a meal, and indeed microscopical examination made soon after a flea has bitten will reveal blood upon its external mouth parts. If these are snipped off and teased out in a drop of water many blood corpuscles may be found, and if these occur then surely it would be possible for numberless bacilli to lodge there also. This is merely a suggestion -no one known to me has examined the matter properly. Theoretically, a flea drinking blood from a malignant buboe would be pretty likely to have a stomach well filled with the bacilli, and this is said to be the case with the plague as well as with leprosy, though what future relation material that has once passed the flea's throat may have to human beings it is for the bacteriologist to discover, if, indeed, this fact has any bearing of importance whatever. According to Dr. Herzog, Zirolia says that the feces of fleas from plague-infected animals contain virulent bacilli, and that in the bodies of the dead fleas these parasites survive for a long time,' though as usual, one of the most important facts-the name of the flea studied is not given. If a flea bites a malignant buboe and then passes to a healthy individual and inserts the proboscis above described beneath the skin, the bacteriologist is to say what chance there is for inoculation in the inflamed flea-bite, certainly a better chance than with a thrust made by a needle. Seemingly there is almost a physical impossibility that bacilli should not be transferred. In the case of leprosy, a flea which has inserted the above-described proboscis into a malignant lepra blotch is persona non grata so far as I am concerned-I would rather not have him transfer his attention to any part of my body, even though I be in more or less ignorance of the possibilities of the case as related to actual infection, resistance or receptivity of different tissues inoculated, etc. Such a statement as Dr. Herzog makes concerning the work of Thompson at Sydney must, it seems to me, serve as a striking call for further investigation. He says, 'Thompson observed blebs which he considered to be produced by fleas and to be the place of entrance of the plague virus, concluding that the transmission of

plague from rats and mice through the intermediation of fleas must be frequent.'

The conflict of opinion all along the line has been amusing when the almost utter lack of definite knowledge on the subject is considered. For instance, in all the talk of rat fleas biting human beings, scarcely a mention has been made of Pulex irritans biting rats, though where this species is abundant this is a common occurrence. All theories must be examined, however improbable, from every point of view, and thoroughly sifted, and then the workable residue may form a useful guide for the broadly planned and properly executed experimentation of the future-the only kind of work that will really count.

Surely here is a subject of prime importance calling loudly for systematic and thorough investigation. For after the years of work of specialists and commissions, the plague is still claiming its thousands, and is now on our own shores, and we have to make the fearful admission that the dread blight of leprosy has not only a firm foothold within the United States, but is rapidly spreading, as new localities become infected. It seems as if even the few considerations mentioned above indicated clearly and definitely abundant need for the following initiative lines of work:

I. Extensive collecting of the fleas infesting rats, cats, dogs and especially human beings, in all parts of the world, but more particularly and thoroughly in all plague- and leprosyinfested regions. Of such prime importance does the writer consider this preliminary investigation that he recently offered to take all the risks incident to such work and prosecute it vigorously and thoroughly in all the worst plague and leprosy-infested regions. His somewhat extended experience in tropical field work and special knowledge of the subject seemed to justify and call for such an offer. Whether it will elicit any response remains to be seen. The striking need of the investigation can not be doubted.

II. An extended and thorough systematic and anatomic study of the species as is now being carried on by the United States government in the case of mosquitoes. The writer has had such work in progress at his personal

expense for many years and has published a number of papers relating to it.

An invitation has been extended to medical men and others the world over to cooperate. This cooperation, while of the greatest importance, and indeed in default of any of the other support so much needed-of prime importance -can only be disconnected and very incomplete.

Residence in the tropics and in a leprosy center, together with the hearty cooperation of Dr. Howard, of Washington, Dr. Carter, of the University of Texas at Galveston, and others has made possible a good beginning by the writer. Indeed, an interesting result already to be noted is that one of the common rat fleas of the southern gulf ports is the same as the common species in Havana, and of the group of tropical rat fleas closely related to Pulex irritans, and thus very likely to bite human beings when opportunity offers. An utter lack of extensive collections from human beings at any of these places makes useful, well-founded deductions on this point impossible. We hope to get these collections. in some way. The simplicity of the apparatus needed (tweezers, small homeopathic vials of alcohol and several rat traps) should make extensive collections possible to all who are interested in the subject. Some have complained of the quick movements of the living insects, and the rapidity with which they desert dead animals, as a serious hindrance to the collecting. A little strong pyrethrum powder will remedy these difficulties. Scattered through the fur of an animal, it immediately disables the fleas, and their expiring efforts serve to carry them out, to fall on white paper, where they may be readily and rapidly gathered. As large series as possible should be taken and full data as to locality, host, etc., should be inserted in every vial. A report will be returned for all specimens sent either to the writer or to Dr. Howard, Government Entomologist in Washington, D. C., U. S. A., and full published credit will later be given for every sending.

ESTACION AGRONOMICA,

C. F. BAKER.

SANTIAGO DE LAS VEGAS, CUBA.

SPECIAL ARTICLES.

NOTE ON THE HABITS OF AN OPHIDIID

(CUSKEEL).

IN 1871 Professor A. E. Verrill (Am. Nat., 5, p. 399) published a note of half a dozen lines on the Ophidium marginatum, remarking that this species appears to be very rare and its habits little known.' He "dug two specimens out of the sand near low-water mark, where they burrowed to the depth of a foot or more. When placed upon moist sand, they burrowed into it tail foremost with surprising rapidity, disappearing in an instant." These are the only data known to me respecting the habits of any member of the ophidioid family. I was, therefore, much interested to receive confirmatory and additional information about the same species from Dr. E. W. Gudger, of Waynesville, N. C.

It is quite possible, if not probable, that the apparent rarity of the species results from the uncommon manner of life rather than from actual paucity in numbers. Persons generally do not look for fishes in the bare sand.

It is to be hoped that one of the investigators at the Beaufort Laboratory will obtain other specimens and study the habits and food of the species. It is probable that the period of activity is night. It would, therefore, be desirable to examine the stomach-contents as early in the morning as possible.

THEO. GILL.

A NOTE ON THE HABITS OF RISSOLA MARGINATA.

ON July 13, 1904, while walking on a sand spit, exposed at low water and lying northwest of the island on which is situated the laboratory of the United States Bureau of Fisheries at Beaufort, N. C., I noticed, thrust out of the wet sand, a conically pointed head which instantly disappeared. Throwing myself down, I immediately began with my bare hands to dig the wet sand where I had seen the head. The animal went down tail first, and so rapidly that I began to despair of capturing it. Presently, however, when I had dug below water level, this little fish was brought out in a great double handful of sand. When taken into the laboratory and put into an aquarium of run

ning salt water, after a few struggles it turned on its side and so remained, seemingly in considerable distress, being unable to maintain itself in the normal position by its delicate filament-like ventral fins which are intramandibular in position.

I then filled a tall glass jar some eight inches deep with fine sand, introduced into it the little fish and placed it under a salt water jet. At first the fish lay quiescent on the sand, but when I returned some hours later, it had burrowed into and was never again seen on top of the sand. Frequently, however, the little fish could be seen with its body half outlined against the glass side of the aquarium. There could then be seen slow undulations of the long dorsal and anal fins together with slight bendings of the body, both motions beginning at the head and progressing towards the tail. Evidently by this means a current of water was maintained through the gillchambers. On the surface of the sand, small conical half-filled depressions could be found. These seemed to have been formed by the fish either in burrowing into the sand or in drawing water over the gills. However, I did not notice any distinct currents through these depressions and can not positively say that they were excurrent and incurrent openings. But I am sure that there were no distinct burrows, the wet sand not having sufficient consistence to remain in shape after the withdrawal of the fish.

Bits of oyster were put into the aquarium as food for the fish, but as these were never counted I could not be sure that any had been eaten and as it was impracticable to make later an examination of the contents of the stomach of the fish, nothing can be said as to its food.

Since this fish was of no value as a live museum specimen, and as I feared that it might die of starvation, it was killed and later identified as Rissola marginata, one of the cuskeels. It is a cause of considerable regret that press of other work prevented a more complete study of the habits of this interesting little fish. This specimen is now in the Museum of the laboratory of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, at Beaufort.

E. W. GUDGER.

INTERNAL INFECTION OF THE WHEAT GRAIN BY RUST A NEW OBSERVATION.

THERE are many species of the rust parasites (Uredinales) found upon cereals. Almost every type of cultivated grain is attacked by its own particular type or form of rust. These rusts are minute, thread-like, filamentous affairs. The threads are very much more minute than the branching spawn met with in mushroom culture. The threads branch very generally and spread through the tissues of the host plant in various directions. They are able to penetrate all of the soft parts of the plants upon which they live. It has usually been supposed that the threads did not spread far from each point of new infection. The filaments usually gain admission to the tissues of the leaves and stems by eroding or boring through the skin layer from the outside. Later the branching filaments become massed at certain points under the skin layer of the host plant. They then produce countless numbers of small ovoid or rounded bodies called spores. These spores are cut off or rounded off from the ends of the filaments, pressing outward under the skin layer of the host. As the spores mature, the size enlarges, and thus the skin or epidermis of the host plant is broken and pushed outward. This allows the spores access to the air and they are then carried by the wind and other agencies from plant to plant and from field to field, perhaps hundreds of miles by wind storms. Countless numbers fall to the ground and do no harm; but countless numbers are produced and thus some of them are sure to reach other host plants. This is the usual method of accounting for the spread of wheat rust.

It has usually been assumed that rusts grow only in the leaves and stems (vegetative parts) of their hosts, but gradually it has been learned that amongst many perennials, certain weeds and shrubs these parasites send their filaments (hypha) into other more permanent structures, as, for example, roots and woody stems, thus becoming perennial with the host. Observations and experiments at this experiment station have gradually convinced us of the probability that rust of wheat may sometimes thus persist. Our field experi