consulted in the arrangements, and parents made proposals at the instigation of their sons. As a general rule the proposal originated with the family of the bridegroom; but occasionally, as in the case of difference of rank, the rule was reversed, and the bride was offered by her father. The consent of the maiden was sometimes asked; but this appears to have been subordinate to the previous consent of her father or other relation.

The selection of the bride was followed by espousal or betrothal, which was a formal proceeding undertaken by a friend on the part of the bridegroom, and by the parents on the part of the bride. It was confirmed by oaths, and accompanied with presents from the man to the woman. Thus, a servant on behalf of Isaac, as a preliminary, propitiated the favor of Rebekah by presenting her with a massive earring and two bracelets; he then proceeded to treat with her parents, and, having obtained their consent to the match, he gave her more costly presents, "jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and raiment," and to her mother and brother "precious things" (Genesis xxiv. 22, 53). Such presents as these were described by different names, those to the brides being dowries, and those to the relations gifts. It has been supposed that the dowry was a price paid to the father for the sale of his daughter; but, although such a payment is made in certain parts of the East at the present day, it does not appear to have been made in patriarchal times for a free woman. Occasionally the bride received a portion from her father. Marriage settlements in the modern sense of the term, namely, written documents securing property to the wife, did not come into use until the first Babylonian period; and the only instance we have of one is in Tobit vii. 14, where it is described as an instrument.

The act of betrothal among the Jews was celebrated by a feast, and among the more modern Hebrews, who still re

tained the ceremony of a formal betrothal, it was the custom in some parts for the bridegroom to place a ring upon his intended bride's finger. Although there is no mention in the Bible of betrothal finger-rings, we find that a ring is mentioned therein as a token of fidelity or friendship (Genesis xli. 42), and of adoption (Luke xv. 22).

Between the betrothal and the marriage an interval elapsed, varying from a few days in the patriarchal age (ten in the case of Rebekah) to a year for virgins, and a month for widows in later times. During this period the brideelect lived with her friends, and all communication between herself and her future husband was carried on through the medium of a friend, who was deputed for the purpose, and termed the "friend of the bridegroom." She was virtually regarded as a wife, her betrothal having an equal force with marriage; hence faithlessness on her part was punishable with death; but her husband-elect had the option of putting her away. Thus, Joseph, after his espousal to Mary, finding her to be with child, and not being willing to make her a public example," was minded to put her away privily." After betrothal a woman could not part with her property except in certain cases.

No definite religious ceremonies appear to have been performed at the wedding itself; but probably some formal ratification of the espousal with an oath took place, as may be implied from some allusions to marriage in Ezekiel xvi. 8, and Malachi ii. 14. The main part of the ceremony was the removal of the bride from her father's house to that of the bridegroom or of his father; in fact, there was a literal truth in the Hebrew expression "to take " a wife, the taking being the essential act. This symbol of capture was not peculiar to the Jews, but was common to nearly all nations in some form, and it was in most cases based upon an actual seizure of the woman by force in the primitive ages.

On the day preceding the wedding the bride took a bath, which was in ancient as well as in modern times a formal proceeding, and accompanied with much ceremony.

On the wedding day the bridegroom dressed himself in festive attire, and particularly placed on his head a beautiful turban and a crown or garland, which was made either of gold, silver, roses, myrtle, or olive, according to his circumstances, and he was highly perfumed with myrrh, frankincense, and other sweet powders. A distinctive feature of the bride's dress was a veil or light robe of ample dimensions, which covered not only her face but also her whole body, and was intended to be a symbol of her submission to her husband. It is still used by Jewesses. The bride also wore a peculiar girdle, and her head was crowned with a chaplet, both of which articles were very distinctive of her condition. The latter was either of gold or gilded. The use of it was interdicted after the destruction of the second Temple, as a token of humiliation. If the bride were a virgin, she wore her hair flowing; her robes were white, and sometimes embroidered with gold thread; she was much perfumed, and decked out with jewels.

When the fixed hour arrived, which was generally late in the evening, the bridegroom set forth from his house, attended by his friends, preceded by a band of musicians or singers, and accompanied by men bearing torches. Having reached the house of the bride, he conducted her and her party back to his own or his father's house, with audible demonstrations of gladness. Even to this day the noise in the streets attendant upon an Oriental wedding is remarkable. Sometimes a tent or canopy was raised in the open air, under which the bride and bridegroom met, and, the former being delivered to the latter, they came forth with great pomp and joy. On their way back the wedding party was joined by other friends of the bride and

bridegroom who were in waiting to mix with the procession as it passed, and the inhabitants of the place came out into the streets to watch the cavalcade.

At the bridegroom's house a feast was prepared, to which all the friends and neighbors of the couple were invited, and which was a most essential part of the marriage ceremony. After the feast came music and dancing, the latter being performed by the male guests round the bridegroom, and by the women round the bride. The festivities were protracted for several, sometimes as many as fourteen, days; seven days being the usual number at the wedding of a virgin, and three at a widow's. The guests were provided by the host with suitable robes, and the feast was enlivened with music, riddles, and other amusements. In the case of the marriage of a virgin, parched corn was distributed among the guests, the significance of which is not certain, but probably it was intended to suggest a hope of fruitfulness and plenty. This custom bears some resemblance to the distribution of the mustaceum among the guests at a Roman wedding, of which we shall make some mention hereafter.

The last act in the ceremonial was the conducting of the bride, still completely veiled, to her bed-chamber, where a canopy, which was sometimes a bower of roses and myrtle, was prepared. This act was preceded by formal prayers. If proof could be subsequently adduced that the bride had not preserved her maiden purity, the case was investigated; and, if convicted, she was stoned to death before her father's house (Deuteronomy xxi. 13-21).

A newly-married man was exempt from military service, and from any public business which might take him away from his home, for the space of one year after his marriage; and a similar privilege was granted to a betrothed man.

The above usages of marriage among the Jews are most

ly ascertained from the Bible, but the Talmudists specify three modes by which marriage might be effected. One being by a presentation of money in the presence of witnesses, accompanied by a mutual declaration of betrothal; another being by a written instead of a verbal contract, with or without money; and another being by mere consummation, which, although valid in law, was discouraged as being contrary to morality.

The condition of Jewish married women in the patriarchal days was very favorable; they enjoyed much freedom, independence, and authority in their homes; and the relationship of husband and wife was characterized by great affection and tenderness. Divorce was allowed, and the first instance of it mentioned in the Bible is in Genesis xxi. 14, where we are told that Abraham sent Hagar and her child away from him. In Deuteronomy xxiv. 1, a man had the power to dispose of a faithless wife by writing her a bill of divorcement, giving it into her hand, and sending her out of his house.

The brother of a childless man was bound to marry his widow; or, at least, he had the refusal of her, and she could not marry again until her late husband's brother had formally rejected her. The ceremony by which this rejection was performed took place in public, and is mentioned in Deuteronomy xxv. 5-10. If the brother refused her, she was obliged to "loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face," or, as some Hebraists translate it," spit before his face." His giving up the shoe was a symbol that he abandoned all dominion over her; and her spitting before him was a defiance and an assertion of independence.

This practice is still further illustrated by the story of Ruth, whose nearest kinsman refused to marry her, and to redeem her inheritance. He was therefore publicly called upon to do so by Boaz, and he publicly refused. The Bible