The kapu system of prohibitions and restrictions governed the daily activities and behavior of people. No attempt was made to dominate the land or the plants and animals therein. Rather, there was a deep respect for the environment and an emphasis on living in harmony with nature. The second author remembers that during her childhood no one threw opala (trash) into the streams or sea or dirtied the earth. No one swam in or befouled the water to be drunk. The lesson remembered was: everything is a gift and everything should be shared. For this reason, for example, some fruit was always left on the trees for the birds; nothing was taken greedily or wasted as tomorrow's needs were always considered.

Family consciousness was a unifying and deeply felt force among the Hawaiians. Ohana, the family clan or extended family, is derived from oha, the root of the taro plant, the staple in the Hawaiian diet, and signifies the same root of origin for its members. The 'ohana included makua-the parents and all relatives of the parent-generation; kupunagrandparents and all relatives of the grandparent generation: and keikithe children. The aumakua, ancestor gods, also were included in the Johana. They had the ability to take kino lau, that is, many bodies and forms, such as sharks, owls, rocks, and plants, and could change at will from animal to plant to mineral form. Senior members of the family. including the aumakua, were respected. In them was invested the family authority, which was clearly recognized and obeyed, and their wis dom and knowledge were used to guide the 'ohana. Communication with the aumakua was conducted through ritual and with reverence and was a normal part of 'ohana living. The Hawaiians thus had a clear sense

M.K. Pukui et al. Nana I Ke Kumu (Look to the Source). Vol. 1, (Honolulu, Hui Hanai, 1972).

1 Ibid.

of their link and place in time and received emotional supports from spiritual ancestors as well as earthly members of the family.

Although all kupuna (kupuna is the singular form), or members of the grandparent generation, were respected, the hanau mua was the acknowledged head of the 'ohana. This status was determined, not by age or sex, but by genealogy. To illustrate, the chronologically younger, but eldest in the senior branch of the family served as hanau mua to an older cousin who was the eldest in a junior branch of the clan. The hanau mua was the accepted source of wisdom, the arbitrator of family disputes, the trouble shooter in family problems, and the custodian of family history.' If he or she proved consistently incompetent in the discharge of these responsibilities, the family discussed the problem and selected another elder with whom family members quietly consulted.

Children were cherished in the Hawaiian culture. Parents and grandparents were deeply involved in the hanai ho'ohiwahiwa, or rearing of the young. Boys and girls were taught sex appropriate tasks and educated in the knowledge of the stars (kilo hoku), designing and making implements for tapa work ('oihana kapala kua ula), or deep sea fishing ('oihana ku'ula)-whatever profession the parents and grandparents engaged

'Ibid.

Photo Frank A Botelho

in. The hiapo, first born child, if a girl, was adopted, or taken as hanai, by the maternal grandparents, and if a boy, was the hanai of the paternal grandparents. The child was given outright in a binding agreement when the parents said in the presence of others, Nau ke keiki kukae a na'au,"-I give this child, intestines. contents and all. For the Hawaiians, emotions, intelligence, and character

Em hele i

ka na❜auao o ko kakou ho'oilina e ola mau

Share the knowledge of our heritage that it may continue.

were associated with the guts or intestines, rather than the heart or brains. the first connection to the life giving force being the piko, or umbilical cord. The hanai child knew his or her biological parents and was usually visited by them, but belonged to the grandparents. The Hawaiians placed great value on knowing the family genealogy, ancestor gods, and traditions. Because there was no written language to record this history, the hiapo became the living history book of the 'Ohana. Grandparents served

S.M Kanakau, Aa Pa'e Kahiko-The Peo ple of Old. (Honolulu. Bishop Museum Press, 1964)

5 Pukui, Look to the Source, op ci

July-August 1981 11

pineapple, on a large-scale basis. The labor shortage created by such ventures was solved by the induced immigration of plantation workers beginning with the Chinese in 1852 and followed by subsequent waves of Japanese. Filipinos and other ethnically diverse individuals. The overthrow of the monarchy and dethronement of Queen Lili'uokalani in 1893 paved the way for the dominant impact the United States would have on Hawaii -through commercial interests, the military, politics and government, and tourism.

Collectively, these four major influences altered the basic framework of Hawaiian society and moved the islands inexorably into the twentieth century. What are some of the changes elderly Hawaiians have observed occurring to their land and people? One of the most profound relates to the dramatic shifts in demography. Table 1 illustrates the downward trend in population among the Hawaiians, both in absolute numbers and in proportion to the total population. over the last hundred years or so, as well as the increases in all other ethnic groups. The entry of individuals of various ethnic groups, who often came initially to work on the plantations. can be traced by the data in Table 1. Although the Caucasians were among the first "outsiders." their growth occurred primarily after Hawaii figured prominently as a military and tourism center. The best available evidence indicates that there were no more than 300.000 Hawaiians at the time of Captain Cook's first visit, so the slightly more than 70.000 Hawaiians at the time of the first official census in 1853 represents less than one-fourth of the preEuropean figure. The devastating death rate resulted largely from the introduction of diseases by visitors from abroad to which the previously isolated Hawaiians had not developed immunities. Some believe that the

AW Lind. Hawans People (Honolulu. The University Press of Hawan, 1980)

disease factor was not solely responsible for the rapid decline of the native population. Young, a psychiatrist with the University of Hawaii School of Medicine, cites in The Hawaiians the saying Nå kanaka 'oku'u wale aku no i kau 'uhane-''the people dismissed freely their souls and died-to explain the role which the loss of identity, prestige, and cultural elements played in affecting the will to live.

If not resulting in physical death, the press of the outside world certainly brought about the termination of a stable societal order. Although the kapu system provided useful guidelines for sanitation, public health, and the consumption of resources, the same system benefited the ruling class over the commoners and outcasts/slaves and was sometimes abused by the chiefs. The erosion of the kapu system and the rules which governed how individuals related to nature, their gods, and each other destroyed the underpinnings of a traditional way of life. and because there was no ready-made framework to replace it. many Hawaiians were left in a state of cultural confusion.

Cultural conflict was another legacy of the foreigners. The introduction of new behaviors, new viewpoints. new gods, and new ways of relating to one's children, mate, and parents resulted in the severe questioning. and, at times, rejection, of traditional values and institutions. This problem was compounded when children were exposed to standards and practices at variance with those espoused by their parents and grandparents. The charting of new identities and lifestyles with abundant, dissonant, and confusing directional markers was not with out pain and anguish, and, for some. failure.

Another influence introduced by Westerners was the stress on the individual and on competition as the means to achieve goals. As this philosophy gained dominance in the new social order, whether in the educa

tional system or business world, rewards, recognition, and success were awarded for personal achievement and production. The cornerstone of the "Hawaiian way was in direct opposition to this concept, and there was no way of reconciling the two viewpoints. Hawaiians place great importance on human relationships. These affiliative values stress group over individual pursuits and the solving of interpersonal problems. Aggressive, challenging, and confrontative behaviors, or placing another individual in a position of embarrassment or discomfort, are avoided by the Hawaiians, or undertaken at the risk of personal anxiety and group censure. These qualities. taken out of the context of the culture's value system. have been misinterpreted and used to depict the Polynesians as "lazy," "easy going." and "shiftless. The Hawaiian people's achievements-often requiring great will, endurance, and toil-give lie to the view that they are without ambition or the capacity for hard work.