The earliest lexicographer whom we meet during the darkest period of the middle ages is Papias who lived about 1000 of our era. This fact in inferred from the circumstance that in the word aetas he enumerates all the emperors and stops with Henry II. who reigned from 1002 to 1124. Papias, who was a native of Lombardy, understood Greek as well as Latin. His work is entitled Vocabularium or Elementarium doctrinae rudimentum, and was undoubtedly one of the sources of the Catholicon. It was repeatedly printed after the invention of the art of printing, for the first time in Milan in 1476, more than four hundred years after the death of the author, and several times in Venice in 1485, 1487, 1491, 1496. About two hundred years after Papias, about 1196, lived Hugatio or Ugatio of Pisa, bishop of Ferrara. He copied Papias and he and Papias were again copied by de Janua. While coädjutor, or rather guardian, of a spendthrift abbot, he found in the library of the monastery a copy of Papias of which he availed himself in the composition of his Glossarium. This seems to have existed and circulated in manuscript alone. Nearly an hundred years later, about 1286, lived Joannes Balbus de Ginoa or Joannes de Janua or Januensis, being a native of Janua, a maritime town in Upper Italy. Availing himself of the labors of Papias and Hugatio he constructed the famous Catholicon, printed by Faust himself in 1460. It is not only the first printed dictionary but one of the first printed books. It contains some grammatical remarks and dictiones, quae saepe inveniuntur in biblia et in diariis Sanctorum et etiam poetarum secundum ordinem alphabeti ordinate subjunctas. The Catholicon was frequently republished; the second, third and fourth editions appeared in Venice in 1483, 1487 and 1495; two in Lyons in 1506 and 1514; one in Paris in 1520. However popular the Catholicon was, chiefly from the want of a better work, its defects were too glaring to escape severe criticisms. Erasmus calls it naeniae and opus indoctissimum. Joannes de Garlandia belongs to this period, but is otherwise not connected with this first group of lexicographers, Papias, Hugatio and de Janua. He lived about 1040, was an Englishman, and wrote a work Synonyma et Aequivoca, which was first printed in Cologne 1490, afterwards in Paris 1496. The dictionary of Nestor Dionysius was published in different places, especially Paris and Venice in 1488, 1496, 1502, 1507. With the works of Tortellius, Maius and Reuchlin, we approach a better time. They form, in this department, the transition to the period of the revival of literature. Joannes Tortellius, a native of 1851.] Reuchlin-Perotti. 775 Arezzo, lived about 1439, and was a friend of the distinguished Laurentius Valla. His Dictionarium vocum Latinarum, in which he paid special attention to orthography, was repeatedly printed in Venice and other places in 1477, 1480, 1493, 1495, 1504, 1508. Junianus Maius, a native of Naples, lived about 1480 and his dictionary appeared in Naples and other places in 1475, 1477, 1480, 1496. Joannes Reuchlin, or Caprio, as he translated his German name, was the most remarkable of these three men, more, however, for his great literary attainments than his labors as a lexicographer. He was born 1454 at Pforzheim in South Germany, but passed a considerable portion of his life as Professor in Tübingen. It was in the earlier part of his life that he prepared and published, in Basil 1480, the Breviloquium sive Dictionarium Latinum ordine alphabetico singulas voces breviter explicans. This circumstance will account for its imperfections and for the fact that it soon fell into disuse. He was well acquainted with Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and was a statesman as well as a scholar. Being sent, by the prince of the Palatinate, as an ambassador to Rome, he sought there the instruction of the distinguished Greek Argyropylus. To show the extent of his knowledge of Greek to his new teacher, he translated a passage of Thucydides into Latin, upon which the learned Greek exclaimed: Graecia nostra exilio transvolavit Alpes. We come now to one of the most important men in the department of lexicography, who is, indeed, to some extent the founder of modern lexicography, although one of his successors and borrowers has gained a more extended reputation. Nicolaus Perotti was born 1430 in Sassoferrata, was professor in Bologna, became 1458 archbishop of Liponto, and died in 1480. He showed, in his Cornucopia, the way how to collect the materials for a trustworthy lexicon and made himself a very successful beginning. The first literary work by which he made himself known was a Latin translation of Polybius, which was esteemed so good that it gave rise to a charge that he had surreptitiously appropriated to himself an ancient translation discovered by him somewhere. Upon a closer examination it was found, however, that, excellent as the style was, the translation was so free and inaccurate that it does not deserve the name of a translation. The work which renders him distinguished in Latin lexicography was entitled Cornucopia, a commentary of Martial so complete that it may justly be called a dictionary. On account of the indecency of many parts of the author, Perotti was unwilling to have his work published, but he communicated it freely to his friends. As many availed them selves of his kindness without any acknowledgment whence they derived their information, his nephew, to guard against any doubts with regard to the authorship, copied the work secretly, and sent it to Fred. Ubaldini, duke of Urbino, for safe keeping. It was published soon after Perotti's death in 1482, and after that frequently reprinted in Venice, Paris, Basel and other places in 1492, 1499, 1500, 1513 (by Aldus Manutius), 1526, 1532, etc. More fortunate, at least as regards a wide spread and long preserved name, was Ambrosius Calepinus, called so from Calepium, a town between Bergamo and Brescia, who lived at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, and died 1510, at Bergamo, at a very advanced age. His dictionary, Lexicon Calepinum, was long famous, although he was more a diligent compiler from the works of Nestor, Tortellius, and chiefly Perotti, than an original collector and investigator. The defects of the work were numerous; many good words were omitted, many barbarous ones received, many mistakes committed in marking the quantity of syllables, and although numerous improvements were introduced into succeeding editions, many of the original defects remained so that it was said with some justice: Bonus ille Calepinus toties coctus et recoctus parum sapit. Besides benefitting by the labors of his predecessors, especially Perotti, which he copied, as we have already stated, he had the good fortune that succeeding good scholars retained his work as the basis of their own improvements and thus helped to perpetuate a name which, otherwise, would have been soon forgotten. The first edition appeared in 1502. In the preface Calepinus makes a characteristic remark which shows how little he was fitted for the task he had undertaken; he acknowledges that he places, in his labors, more confidence in the fathers Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine than scholars like Laurentius Valla, Priscianus and others. The second edition, of 1509, appeared like the first in Venice prepared by the author himself. For about two hundred years after this a great many editions were published in different places, Paris, Venice, Leyden, Antwerp, Genoa, and prepared by different scholars, in 1510, 1516, 1534, 1535, 1539, 1544 (by Conr. Gesner), 1545, 1548, 1560, 1570, 1572, 1581, 1592, 1620, 1647, 1663, 1681; so that the name of Calepinus was for several generations one of the most familiar, and Manutius says very justly: Bonum fatum Calepinus sortitus est, cui fere omnes homines de suo largiantur. Certe enim illius dictionarium non tam auctoris industria quam aliorum labore studioque in tantam altitudinem excrevit. Many distinguished scholars were employed in revising 1851.] Lexicon of Nizzoli. 777 and improving different editions; the names of others were sometimes used by booksellers without authority. It is more than probable, from the statement of Casp. Schopp (Scioppius), that the name of Jul. Passeratius was thus improperly used. The path which Perotti had entered upon, making a single author, Martial, the basis of his lexicographical labors, was pursued by Mario Nizzoli (Nizolius). He was born, in 1498, in Bersello on the Po, lived for some years in the house of Count Gambara, a patron of literary men, was made professor at Parma in 1547, director of a new academy in Sabionetta, and died in his native place in 1566. His great work is the Thesaurus Ciceronianus sive Observationes in Ciceronem ordine literarum digestae, quibus omnis vere Latine loquendi ratio et quot quibusque modis unaquaeque vox distingui variarique possit, per exempla Ciceronis plane demonstratur. This thesaurus was frequently republished in Basil, Venice, Lyons and other places in 1530, 1535, 1541, 1548, 1551, 1568, 1608, 1612, until, chiefly through the labors of Ludovicus Lucius, it grew into a dictionary, published in Basil 1613. The thesaurus of Rob. Stephanus, who was a contemporary of Nizzoli and who had himself prepared one of the editions of Nizzoli's thesaurus (that published in Venice in 1551), principally furnished the materials which Lucius introduced into the enlarged Thesaurus Ciceronianus. We ought not, perhaps, to omit making mention, in this place, of Basilius Zanchius, a native of Bergamo, who lived in the time of Leo X. and died in 1560, who furnished additions to Nizolius and Calepinus. We have thus arrived at a new and important era in Latin lexicography, which is at the same time the limit of our present task, we mean the era of Robert Stephanus. ARTICLE VI. OF THE NATURE AND KINDS OF THE SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS A PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR GRAMMAR. Translated from the German of Hupfeld by Prof. George R. Bliss, University of Lewisburg, Pa. § 1. Mechanism of the Organs of Speech. HUMAN speech, as an outward phenomenon (apart from the operations of the mind which give rise to it), is a mechanical function of certain corporeal organs. Its sounds belong in general to that class which are produced by the passage of a current of air through an orifice or a hollow body. They arise from the passage of the breath out of the lungs through the throat and mouth. The first of these, therefore, is in a manner, the matter of which speaking sounds are formed (the real principle), the two latter the instruments or organs by which they are executed (the formal principle). These latter, which first require our more particular attention, together form a passage corresponding in structure throughout to that of a wind instrument, the throat and cavity of the mouth respectively to the mouth-piece and tube. In each of the two parts, again, distinct sections must be discriminated, each having its special functions. 1. The throat or rather the larynx (the upper end of the throat or trachea, with the rest of which we are not concerned) is a hollow vessel consisting of several cartilages, in which we note the following parts. (1) In the middle, a lengthened, narrow aperture or cleft, the glottis, whose lower orifice communicates with the trachea, its upper with the mouth. This is that, properly, which answers to the mouth-piece in the wind instrument. (2) On the inner edges of the glottis, two tense elastic ligaments, the voice-bands or glottis-bands (whose vibrations accompany the voice). (3) Over the glottis, an upright, flexible and somewhat oval-shaped cartilage, the lid of the glottis or epiglottis which rests its outer convex surface against the tongue, while the inner concave side faces the glottis so that in swallowing it is bent over by the tongue and covers it.1 2. The mouth presents a more complex mechanism in which two 1 Comp. Liskovius, Theorie der Stimme. Leipz. 1814 (with plates). S. 9—16. |