tells me is the white worm or ver blanc of your Gardener's Magazine. How are we to know, if scientific entomologists will not condescend to think for us? - A. B. Latreille's Natural System of Animals. Will you, or any of your readers, inform me in what respect Latreille's system differs from that of Cuvier, and what relation both systems bear to what are called the circular, binary, quinary, and septenary systems, of which we hear so much by modern naturalists?-Alexander Simson. York Street, Covent Garden, April 10. In our succeeding Number, the first of a series of papers on zoology will be given; introductory to which the above and other systems of arrangement will be discussed. - Cond. ART. XI. Retrospective Criticism. THE Eagle and the Hawk. - Sir, In the vignette of your Prospectus (otherwise very prettily and correctly designed) you have given a figure, in. tended, I presume, for an eagle; but allow me to hint that it has much of the hawk aspect about it, and, in short, that it is a compound of both. The bills of all eagles are more or less lengthened at the base; that is, they form a straight line towards the nostrils, and then a suddenly curve as they approach the end, where they bend into a strong hook. (fig. 46.77.) The bills of hawks (b) and falcons (c), on the contrary, are very much shorter, and the curve,instead of commencing at about half b the length of the bill, begins, as in the figure in your vignette, at the very base. These characters and differences in the bill mainly serve to distinguish the two divisions of rapacious birds placed by Linnæus in the genus Fálco, and known in the days of falconry by the terms noble and ignoble. The noble falcons are those which seize their prey in the air during flight; for they never devour what has been killed or wounded by other birds; they must drink the blood of their victims warm, or not at all. In all these birds the bill is very short, strong, and much hooked. Cuvier, and other French reformers, have made numerous sub-genera of such as vary more or less in the shape and form of the bill and wings; but, as I am not acquainted with the foreign species, I shall only notice those which occur in Britain. Of these noble falcons we have two races: the first, which in point of fact, are the most noble, are such as have the upper mandible of the bill provided with a strong and sharp tooth (fig. 46. b), used, most probably, for the more expeditious tearing of their prey; the wings, too, are very long; often, indeed, exceeding the tail, and the second feather is always the longest. In both these characteristics, swiftness and rapacity are strongly indicated. To this tribe belong the restrel or stannel, the merlin, the hobby, and the peregrine falcon. The last of these, from its docility and courage, seems to have been the favourite among falconers. The second race of falcons are inferior to the first in many respects; the tooth of their bills is rounded off, and does not present an acute angle; while the wings are proportionably short, and consequently weaker. Our only native example of these birds (which are the true hawks) is the sparrow-hawk Between these two races stands the Hièro Falco of Cuvier, known in this country by the name of the Iceland falcon. I have never met this bird in any of my shooting excursions, and shall be very glad if some of your correspondents could give me, through your Journal, some intimation of its manners and habits. It is described by Cuvier as having the blunt-toothed bill of the hawk, and the long wings of the true falcons already noticed. It is therefore considered by some as a connecting link between them; while it is placed by Cuvier intermediate between the Nóbiles, and the second grand division of rapacious birds, called Ignóbiles, from their being seldom, if ever, used in falconry. Under this title come the buzzards, kites, and eagles. All these agree in having the bill provided only with a slight festoon, instead of a tooth, and in the fourth feather of the wings being the longest. They either dart or fall upon their prey, and do not seize it, like the noble birds, by chase; they may be called, indeed, poachers, while the true falcons are legitimate hunters. Most of these ignoble birds will devour any animal that comes in their way, as rats, mice, snails, slugs, beetles, &c., and will, if pressed for food, even devour carrion. Buzzards are known by the great length of their wings, their even tail, and their small head and bill. Our native species are: 1. The Hen-harrier; 2. Honey Buzzard; 3. Common Buzzard; 4. Rough-legged Buzzard; and, 5. Moor Buzzard. The kites are not much unlike the buzzards, but have been separated from them on account of their long forked tail. One species only is found with us, and which is well known. The last tribe of ignoble birds are the eagles. It seems strange that naturalists should differ so much from poets and historians, who, in every age, have given the opposite denomination to these birds. But this seems to have originated more in ignorance of their habits, when compared to the true falcons. Eagles are certainly among the largest birds, and eminent for great strength and powers of destruction. They may be compared to the race of giants among men, as described in the Fairy Tales; but we seldom read of these giants being at the same time brave, generous, or docile. On the contrary, poets describe them as treacherous, cowardly, and blood-thirsty; in short, just such a race as the eagles are among birds. They may be kept in confinement, and reared from the nest, but they are never tamed; and they will occasionally rob other more courageous hunters, of the spoil which they want either the bravery or activity to procure for themselves. Wilson, the delightful author of the American Ornithology, describes this trait in the character of the bald eagle, in the following glowing colours :—“ Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic tree, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the feathered tribes below. High over all these, hovers one, whose action instantly arrests his attention; by his wide curvature of wing and sudden suspension in air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight; and balancing himself with half open wings on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep. At this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour; and levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more emerge, struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are the signal for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in these rencontres the most elegant and sublime aërial evolutions. The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish. The eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods." In proof, however, of the innate cowardice of this formidable robber, the same author adds, "When driven, as he sometimes is, by the combined courage of the fish-hawks, from their neighbourhood, and forced to hunt for himself, he retires more inland, in search of young pigs, of which he destroys great numbers. He will also attack old sickly sheep, aiming furiously at their eyes." The above extract is so interesting, that I have transcribed it without abridgment, particularly as the great expense of the work will naturally prevent it from being in the hands of many of your readers. Our Natural History Society here fortunately possess a copy. To conclude, the species of eagles inhabiting Great Britain appear still to be imperfectly understood. The bald eagle, or white-tailed eagle, above mentioned (Falco leucocéphalus Lin.), seems to be the adult of the sea-eagle of Pennant, as the ring-tailed is of the golden eagle (F. chrysaetos Lin.). The fishing eagle, alluded to by Wilson, is likewise found in Britain. I am, Sir, yours, &c. Manchester, March 20. 1828. Z. B. The vignette to which Z. B. alludes was that of our first Prospectus, in which the trees, as well as the eagle's head, were not very correct. Our present vignette will be found considerably improved in both these particulars. Cond. EXCHANGE of Shells.- Sir, I take the first advantage of your well projected Magazine of Natural History, to propose an exchange with some of your conchological readers. My cabinet is deficient in the following species of A'nodon, for which I shall be happy to give, in exchange, the duplicates of some very fine Uniònes, I have just received from America. A'nodon rugosus, Swainson's Zoological Illustrations, vol. ii. pl. 96. A'nodon crássus, Ibid. vol. iii. pl. 167. A'nodon elongatus, Ibid. vol. iii. pl. 176. Anodónta exótica, Lamarck's Anim., vol. vi. p. 87. Anodónta patagónica, Ibid. p. 88. Birmingham, April. S. C. Ca Brookesian Museum. - The zootomical collection of Joshua Brookes, Esq. F. R. S. &c., the celebrated anatomist, will be sold by auction about the middle of May, unless previously purchased by private contract. talogues are generally published of such collections, to give an idea of their contents; but so much does that of Mr. Brookes exceed all others that we remember in extent and number, that even the prodromus, or forerunner of the catalogue, is a pamphlet of twenty pages. The catalogue itself will be published as speedily as possible, arranged, like the prodromus, according to the circular form. A Collection of Shells and Minerals, of considerable interest, though hitherto little known to the public, will soon be exposed for sale by Mr. Sowerby, the author of The Genera of Shells, &c. (p. 56.) Lectures on the Universe, including a general view of every department of natural history, will be delivered in the course of the summer by Mr E. Donovan, F. L. S. M.W.S. &c. &c., author of various works on fishes, birds, &c. Private Lessons on Botany are given by Miss Kent, the elegant authoress of Flora Doméstica and Sylvan Sketches, of whose taste and talents in her department, an article in a succeeding Number will bear ample testimony. THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. JULY, 1828. ART. I. The Cuvierian, or Natural, System of Zoology. Essay 1. On the distinctive Characters of Vegetables and Animals, and the leading Physiological Characters which serve as the Basis for the Four Grand Divisions of the Animal Kingdom. By B. THE excellence of the Cuvierian system of zoology, as explained in the work entitled Le Règne Animal, consists in its being a natural system, founded on the organisation and the essential resemblances of living beings. It presents us with a chart of animal life, and shows us that all the varied forms and modes under which sentient creatures exist, are referable to four distinct forms, or models, and these forms are the foundation of the four grand divisions of the animal kingdom. Each of these forms, or models, without changing its essential characters, admits of different modifications, corresponding with the internal organisation, and thus a natural subdivision into classes is established; and on the same principle is made a farther subdivision of each class, into orders, genera, and species. To present the reader with a clear but concise view of this system, it will be necessary to select and state, in the first instance, the leading facts in animal physiology on which the grand divisions are founded. The ancient division of organised living beings into animate, or those which possess feeling and spontaneous motion, and inanimate, or those which do not enjoy either of these faculties, is, according to Cuvier, sufficiently established; for, though many plants draw back their leaves when touched, and always direct them towards the light, and their roots towards moisture, and though oscillations take place in the parts of some vegetables, without any apparent external cause, yet these motions bear too slight a resemblance to those of animals, to afford proofs of perception or volition. The spontaneous moVOL. I. No. 2. H tions of animals make essential modifications necessary in those organs, which may be regarded as simply vegetative. The parts which perform the functions of roots do not penetrate the ground, they are therefore obliged to have a power residing in themselves of gathering their aliments, and they must also carry within themselves the receptacle of these aliments. Hence arises the first character of animals,—an intestinal cavity, whence the nourishing juices penetrate the other parts, either by pores or by vessels, which may be regarded as internal roots. The organisation of the intestinal cavity, and of its appertenances, must naturally vary according to the nature of the aliments, and the operations they must undergo, before furnishing juices proper to be absorbed; whereas the atmosphere and the earth supply vegetables with juices already prepared for absorption. The body of an animal, having to perform functions more varied and numerous than those of a plant, consequently required a much more complicated organisation; its parts, also, being unable to preserve a fixed position in regard to each other, it was not possible for the regular motion of its fluids to be affected by external causes. This motion must be independent of temperature and the atmosphere; hence the necessity for the second character of animals, a system of circulation: but this is less essential than the digestive system, because it is not found in the most simple animals. The functions of animals require organic systems that are not necessary in vegetables, - a system of muscles for voluntary motion, and a system of nerves for sensation. The chemical composition of the animal body is also more complicated than that of a plant, and there enters into it an additional essential elementary substance, azote, which in plants is only accidentally united with the three essential elements of their organic structure, -oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. The muscular and nervous systems, and the different composition of animal bodies, form the third character. The soil and the atmosphere present to vegetables, for their nutrition, water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen; and atmospheric air, which contains oxygen, azote, and carbonic acid: the latter is a combination of carbon and oxygen. To draw from these aliments their proper nourishment, it is necessary that plants should retain the hydrogen and the carbon, and that they should exhale the superfluous oxygen, and absorb little or none of the azote: such is the routine (la marche) of vegetable life, the essential function of which is the exhalation of oxygen; this is performed by the aid of light. The |