while each priest, at the same time, sees that the children of his flock attend regularly. After the child has been the appointed number of years at school, it receives from the schoolmaster, and the priest of the religion to which it belongs, a certificate, without which it cannot procure employment. To employ any person under twenty-one, without such a certificate, is illegal, and punished by a fixed fine, as is almost every other offence in this part of Germany; and the fines are never remitted, which makes punishment always certain. The schoolmaster is paid much in the same way as in Scotland; by a house, a garden, and sometimes a field, and by a small salary from the parish; and by fixed rates for the children.

A second law, which is coeval with the school law, renders it illegal for any young man to marry before he is twenty-five, or any young woman before she is eighteen; and a young man, at whatever age he wishes to marry, must show, to the police and the priest of the commune where he resides, that he is able, and has the prospect, to provide for a wife and family.

There are minor causes, but these two laws, and the general possession of land both by labourers and tradesmen, are the chief. Amongst the minor causes are the general simplicity of their forms of religion, and universal toleration; even the Catholic faith, in Wurtemberg, is unattended with the ceremony and spectacle with which it is exhibited in various parts of Germany and France. The equal footing on which the different religions are placed, is also favourable to liberality of sentiment and good neighbourhood. That particular mildness of feature and character, so different from what is met with in the labouring classes in England, is, no doubt, partly owing to the greater proportions of vegetables and fruits which enter into the general diet of the population; the almost total abstinence from strong liquors or spirits, the general drink being wine; and, perhaps, to the almost unremitted smoking of tobacco from morning to night.

If we seem to have wandered a little from our direct path, in order to bring these particulars into the view of our readers, it is because we think similar laws, in respect to education and marriage, would be of the greatest importance to Britain and Ireland. Nothing could be easier than for every vestry and parish clergyman to see them executed. Such laws would be a small infringement, it is true, on personal liberty; but an infringement which, we should think, every reasonable parent would assent to, and for which, we are sure, every child, on its arrival at the age of maturity, would be thankful. We most ardently wish that the state of things in the three countries mentioned, might attract the attention of some person of parliamentary interest; and that those who have doubts on the subject, would consent to inform themselves by a residence of a few weeks in Wurtemberg, and especially at Stuttgard, round which city will be found one of the richest and most picturesque countries in Europe. If we have made any mistakes in this hurried relation, written without leisure to refer to the documents which we have in our portmanteau, M. Zoller, one of the Commissioners of National Schools, and our principal informant, will correct us, or supply our omissions.

Cond.

ITALY.

Flora Virgiliana. Sprengel of Halle, and Martin of London, have endeavoured to, ascertain the identity of the plants mentioned by Virgil; and, more recently, M. Fée of Paris, was employed upon the same subject by the editor of the Latin Classics; but Sig. Tenore of Naples, has not only had the advantage of their remarks, but has travelled over Italy with his Virgil in his hand, and has just published the result in a brochure entitled Osservazioni sulla Flora Virgiliana. He only mentions eleven. 1. The Arúndo of Virgil is not necessarily the Arúndo Dònax, nor the A. Phragmites, as M. Fée decides; for Italy possesses other species of Arúndo. 2. The Baccar is not the Valeriana céltica, as M. Fée thinks, but rather the A'sarum. 3. The

Cerinthe must be either the Saturèja Thýmbra, or S. capitàta., 4. The Cùcumis of the line

"Cresceret in ventrem," &c.

is not the common cucumber, but the Cucumis Chàte of Linnæus, a plant originally brought from Egypt, by the conquerors of the world. As to the Cucumis cæruleus of Virgil, Sig. Tenore thinks it must be the Melone vernico of the Italians. 5. The 'sculus is, without doubt, the Quércus Ròbur var. latifòlia, and not the Quércus 'sculus, of which the existence in the Flora of Virgil is doubtful. 6. The Hédera álba is not the Antirrhinum Asarina, a common plant in the South of France, but which is not found in the Neapolitan territory. It must be that variety of Hédera called by Pliny Chrysocarpum. 7. The Hyacinthus is not the Lilium Mártagon. It accords better with Gladiolus byzantinus. 8. The Oleáster is not the Eleagnus angustifolia, or Bohemian olive, which never grew spontaneously in Italy, but the wild olive at present known all over the south of Italy by the name of Olivastro. 9. The Cerea prima belong to the variety named by the Italians Scaldatelle. 10. The Rosèta is the cultivated rose. 11. The Viburnum is not the Lantana, but the Viburnum Tìnus. (Bulletin des Sciences.)

Flora Clássica. - Dr. J. Billerbeck is publishing, under this title, descriptions of all the plants mentioned in classic authors, with the original passages in which they are mentioned. (Announc. Scient. de Götting., p. 479.)

DENMARK.

Erratic Boulders and Blocks. The huge blocks of granite and other primary rocks, which are found scattered over plains and ravines at a great distance from any rocks of the same species, whence they could have been detached, have long been a subject of interesting study and speculation to geologists; and numerous facts connected with their phenomena may be found in the papers of De Luc, Saussure, Von Buch, Hausmann, and Sedgewick, of which a brief summary, along with some original facts, may be found in the Conversations on Geology, p. 237. To these facts we have to add an excellent paper, by M. Brongniart, in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for May, on the rock blocks of Sweden. The author agrees with Hausmann and Von Buch, in tracing the erratic blocks which are scattered over the plains of Seeland, Holstein, and the southern shores of the Baltic, to the table lands (plateaux) of Scandinavia. Their size is frequently enormous, and they abound in the sandy plains of Holstein, still more in that of Seeland, and in the vicinity of Copenhagen, even to Elsineur. They furnish, indeed, the only building stones in those districts. It was at first supposed that they must have come from the Hartz mountains, the nearest district of granite in situ, but more minute inspection proved their identity with the rocks of Sweden, particularly in the minerals contained in them such as wernerite, and in the calcareous blocks, trilobites, and orthoceratites, as M. Brongniart proved. The greatest difficulty of explaining the transit of these blocks is the Sound, which, though narrow, is very deep; and it does not appear in what manner they could have cleared it, as they continue to be found in Scania the same as in Seeland. A similar difficulty is presented by the deep valley of the Aar, with respect to the blocks of Mount Jura. They are so abundant in some places, as to form a sort of hill, which the Swedes call ose, or sandosar, according to the predominance of blocks or of sand. These M. Brongniart found more particularly in Scania, Smoland, Sundermania, and Upland. They are seldom high, and usually long and narrow in form, being rather larger, and more elevated at one extremity than another, and sometimes interrupted towards the middle with a tranverse ravine. They maintain a constant direction from N.N.E. to S.S.W., extending to considerable distances, and very nearly in parallel lines. M. Brongniart aptly compares

them to the little mounds of sand or gravel formed-in streams of running water, when interrupted by a large stone, or any other obstacle. One ose, in particular, named Kinnekulle, and situated on the shore of the Lake Wenern, at the foot of a plateau of basalt, is composed of sand and black coloured blocks, in form of a cue from north to south. Here the origin of these blocks is obvious; for they consist of the same basalt as the plateau, from which they have been detached, and transported to different distances. Upon the plateau of Kinnekulle there are many blocks of granite of consisiderable size, and also similar masses of the inferior sandstone, presenting a striking example of primary rocks, placed upon rocks of newer formation, and also upon alluvial soil of more recent origin.

M. Brongniart remarked, that both in Sweden and in many sub-Alpine and sub-Apennine hills, in proportion as the transported blocks are nearer the summit they increase in size. Thus, in going towards the summit of Superga, near Turin, the blocks at the bottom of the hill are little more than boulders; towards the middle they are several pounds' weight, while near the top they are large. A British instance, no less striking, of the same fact, may be seen in Conversations on Geology, p. 122.

Fig. 1. View of a hill of sand, covered with erratic blocks, on the confines of Scania and Smoland.

Fig. 2. Reduced copy from Hermelin's map of Sweden, to show by pointed tracks the direction of the long, narrow, sand hills, covered with erratic blocks, N. and W. of Upsal.

Fig. 3. and 4. Chart and section of the mountain Kinnekulle, on the east bank of the Lake Wenern.

A, Plateau of compact pyroxenous basanite, very like dolerite. teau is depressed in the centre, and contains a marsh..

This pla

B, Slaty marl, with some vegetable impressions, and the small bodies named graptolites, by Linnæus.

c, Compact limestone, brownish, yellowish, and greenish, containing trilobites, orthoceratites, &c.

D, Aluminous ampelite, containing trilobites, paradoxites and agnostes.
E, Inferior sandstone, containing doubtful vegetable impressions.

F, Sand and basalt.

G, Gneiss.

ASIA.

Fishes peculiar to certain Lakes. - Several travellers confirm the account given by Josephus (Antiq. iii. 18, and De Bello Jud., &c.), that the fishes of the Lake of Gennesareth are peculiar to it. Hasselquist says, "I thought it remarkable, that the same kind of fish should here be met with as in the Nile, such as Charmuth, Silùrus, Boenni, Mulsil, and Spàrus galilæ`us. Josephus says that some consider the fountain of Capernaum as a vein of the Nile, because it brings forth fishes resembling the Corácinus of the Alexandrine Lake.

Supposed Change of Climate. - Professor Schouw, of Copenhagen, has argued plausibly against the opinion, that certain climates have changed in the lapse of ages. The date tree, for instance, he says, requires a mean temperature of 78° Fahr., to bring its fruit to perfection; and it is as successfully cultivated in Palestine now as it was in the earliest times, of which he gives interesting notices. Jericho was called Palm town; and Deborah's palm tree was mentioned between Rama and Bethel. Pliny mentions the palm tree as being frequent in Judea, and chiefly about Jericho. Tacitus, Josephus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Theophrastus, all speak of woods of palm trees there; and on the Hebrew coins date trees are by no means rare, and are easily recognised by their fruit. (Oken's Isis.)

Coral Pólypi.MM. Quoy and Gaimard, the naturalists of the Astrolabe, in her late voyage of discovery, paid considerable attention to the habits of the numerous Pólypi inhabiting corals and corallines, and have thrown some light on their history. They always found, on examining with attention, that the Pólypi protruded only a very little their lamellar and fringed tentacula (les etoiles lamelleuses et decoupées) from their abode, a circumstance which gives them a very peculiar appearance. In some Millepòræ, the animals are very obvious, though in others they cannot be seen; but on passing the hand along the surface, the touch does not indicate the feeling of an immediately stony basis. In some, no organic substance can be perceived, the surface being rough and dry, as the most arid limestone; but in others, such as the elk's-horn, though similarly rough and dry, very minute Pólypi, can be detected burrowing in the stony matter. It may be remarked, that touching those Pólypi produces the same stinging sensation, followed by redness, as that produced by certain Medùsæ, which has obtained for them the name of sea-nettles. The sting of the Pólypi, it would appear, is produced by some acrid fluid, for it is communicable from the hands to any other part of the skin.

MM. Quoy and Gaimard could find no trace of animation in the substances called Nullipòræ, by Lamarck, from their exhibiting no perceptible pores. They profess entire ignorance of their manner of growth.

Corals and corallines of recent formation are much more porous and fragile than when of some age; because the interstices, in the former case, have not been filled up, and even the parts which have been formed require exposure to the air to consolidate and harden them.

No Pólypi appear to possess, as has by some been supposed, life or animation in common. If they did, they would enjoy, as M. Lamarck shrewdly observes, qualities repugnant to the nature of every known animal, namely the faculty of never dying. The stars and rosettes of the Pólypi, therefore,

however numerous, and however closely contiguous, have no mutual communication, nor continuity of substance; the only evidence indeed of which is the instantaneous and simultaneous retreat by the Pólypi into their cells, when accidentally disturbed.

It has been supposed by some naturalists, and is universally believed by the negroes, that fish are rendered poisonous by feeding on the coral Pólypi ; .but MM. Quoy and Gaimard argue, that the flat obtuse nose of fishes cannot possibly detach the Pólypi from their encasements. In the instance of fish which have jaws strong enough to break coral, such as the Diodon cæruleus, whose stomach they found filled with fragments of Madrepòræ, no nacion is known to eat them. In the Mariannes they are looked upon with disgust.

NORTH AMERICA.

Impressions on Rocks. About two miles south of Brasstown, in the United States of America, there is a mountain which is called the Enchanted Mountain, celebrated for the curious impressions, resembling the tracks of turkeys, bears, horses, and human beings, found on its rocky surface, as perfect as they could be made on snow or sand. (Lon. Gen. Gazetteer.) It is probable that these appearances are much indebted to the imaginations of the describers. —J. R.

Description of the Passenger Pigeon.-Length from tip of the bill to the oil-bag 8 in.; to the end of the tail 8-16 in. Breadth 24 in. Weight 9 oz. Bill an inch, black, lengthened, slender; nasal scale wrinkled; a slight flexure in the line of the gape immediately under the nostrils. Upper mandible longer than the under and bent downwards, with the rudiments of a notch; symphysis of the lower mandible short sub-ascending, slightly prominent retrally, with a shallow mesial groove; inside of the mouth livid. Tongue blunt. Bare place round the eyes livid. Irides reddish orange. Feet reddish, paler behind than before. Tarsus 1 in.; the middle toe, exclusive of the nail, the same; claws black, arched, and grooved below. Chin, cheeks, head, back, and rump, bluish grey; shoulders with yellowish brown. Side of the neck and behind, reddish purple, iridescent. Fore neck deep chestnut, becoming paler on the breast, or rather salmon-coloured, and passing to white on the belly and vent, thighs like the breast. Quills brownish black, the grey column of the margin of the outer web increasing at the base of the secondaries, and towards the ends of the inner ones. Bastard wing and greater covers of the primaries brownish black; greater covers of the secondaries grey. Lesser covers and outer scapulars tinged with yellowish brown, with black spots.. The second quill the longest, the first and fourth equal, but these not at full growth. Tail of twelve feathers, the two middle produced, the rest decreasing to the exterior. The two middle dusky black, the next grey, the inner margin white towards the extremity, with a black and brown spot near the base; the fourth and third grey, with the black and brown spot. The outer web and tip of the first white, lower half of the inner web grey, with a black and brown spot. The upper tail-covers long, produced; the lower ones white. (Dr. Fleming.)

SOUTH AMERICA.

Magellanic Clouds. In the sixth or eighth degree of south latitude, the phenomenon called the Magellanic clouds is visible. These supposed clouds are three in number, one black and two white. At the first sight they may be mistaken for clouds ; but their being stationary, and their appearance when attentively viewed, show that they are not genuine clouds. The black one is only a spot in a galaxy, in which there are very few visible stars, and, being surrounded by a milky whiteness, shows much darker than the