:

through a pipe, it is commonly thought, that by that action the person draws the air up into his mouth, and that the water, which is contiguous to it, follows it by a kind of attraction, as if the air and water hung together; and others fancy, that the air moves into the mouth of the sucker, and the water moves up after the air to prevent a vacuum, which, they say, nature abhors: whereas the true cause of this phenomenon is only that the air or atmosphere presses, with its whole weight, uniformly on the surface of the liquor in the vessel: and, consequently, prevents any one part of the water to rise higher than the other there and if a pipe be put in, of any tolerable large bore, and be open at both ends, the water will rise within the pipe to the same height as without, and, indeed, a little higher, because the pressure of the air within the pipe is a little taken off by bearing against the side of the pipe. Now when any one applies his mouth to the upper end of the pipe, and sucks, his lips so strongly inclose the pipe, that no air can get between them and it; and, by the voluntary motion of the muscles, the cavity of his thorax, or breast, is opened and enlarged: by which means the air, included there, hath now a much larger space to dilate itself in, and, consequently, cannot press so strongly against the upper end of the pipe, as it did before the cavity of the thorax was so enlarged, and when the weight of the whole atmosphere kept its spring bent. And that weight or pressure being now taken off by the lips of the man that sucks, the equilibrium is destroyed, the air gravitates on the surface of the water, but cannot do so on the upper orifice of the pipe, because the juncture of the lips takes it off; and the spring of the air included in the thorax being weakened by the dilation of its cavity, it cannot press so hard against the upper orifice of the pipe, as the water will do against the lower, and, consequently, the water must be forced up into the pipe. It is much the same thing in the suction of a common pump; the sucker, being tight, takes off entirely the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water within the barrel of the pump; and, consequently, the atmosphere, by its weight, must force the water up, to make the equilibrium.

his estate is ended, and wrongfully holds against another. Tenants holding over, after determination of their term, and after demand made in writing to deliver possession, are rendered liable to pay double the yearly value. And tenants giving notice of their intention to quit, and not accordingly delivering up the possession at the time in such notice contained, are rendered liable to pay double And it has been held, that under this latter act the notice need not be in writing, and that the landlord may levy his double rent by distress.

rent.

SUFFRAGAN, a titular bishop, appointed to aid and assist the bishop of the diocess.

SUGAR exists in every part of plants. It is found in the roots, as those of the carrot and beet root; in the stems, as in the birch, the maple, some palins, and especially the sugar cane; in the leaves, as those of the ash; in the flowers, the fruits, and seeds. But the sugar which now forms a very extensive article of commerce, and may be considered as a necessary of life, is entirely obtained from the juice of the sugar cane, which is chiefly cultivated in the East and West Indies, by planting cuttings of it in the ground in furrows, dug parallel for that purpose; the cuttings are laid level and even, and are covered up with earth; they soon shoot out new plants from their knots or joints; the ground is to be kept clear, at times, from weeds, and the canes grow quick. When the plants have arrived at their full growth, which, in the West Indies, is in the course of twelve or fourteen months, they are cut down and bruised by means of machinery.

The sugar mill is composed of three rollers of an equal size, and all armed with iron plates, where the canes are to pass between them; only the middle roller is much higher than the rest, to give the larger sweep to the two poles to which the horses are yoked. This great roller in the middle is furnished with a cog full of teeth, which catch the notches in the two side rollers, and force them about, to bruise the canes, which pass quite round the great roller, and come out dry and squeezed from all their juice, which runs into a vessel or back under the mill, and is thence conveyed through a narrow spout into the first

boiler.

Road, Southwark, and sent by him to the West Indies.

AB and D E (fig. 1 and 2.) are four ground sills, crossing and halved into cach other; on the points of intersection four uprights are framed F F F F; these are connected at top by cross pieces a a b b; e (in fig. 2.) is another similar framing between the uprights.

Three blocks of wood are fixed crosswise between the beams e e, and similar ones cross between the upper ones a a, to support the bearings for the three rollers, f g h; these rollers are made of cast iron, and turned in the lathe; they have cog wheels at their upper ends, that they may all turn together; the axis of the middle roller, g, is much longer than the two others, and at the upper end is square; a strong wooden cross plate, with iron, i k, is fitted on it; some distance above this, it has a square piece of iron, n, fixed on its spindle; the long levers, m m, by which it is turned, are bolted at their ends to the piece of iron n, and to the ends of the wooden cross ik; the harness of two mules is made fast to the end of each lever, by hooking their traces into the rings at the end of the levers. In this manner the middle roller is turned round, and, by the cogs, the other two by the side of it. The pivots of the rollers are cylindrical, and each turns between six friction rollers, which traverse in a frame made fast to the cross beams, between a a ande e; the outside of two of these beams slide in rebates cut in the beams a a and ee, and can be moved up towards the middle rollers by wedges tttt; the weight of each roller is supported on three friction wheels below its lower pivot. The construction of a set of these friction wheels is shown in figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 4 is an elevation, and fig. 3 a plan; a (fig. 4) is the end of the pivot; below this it is turned smaller, nearly to the size of the small circle in fig. 3. so as to leave a square shoulder; b is a circular brass plate, fitted upon the small part of the pivot, and resting against the shoulder; dis another similar plate supported by a block of wood, seen in fig. 2, laying on the ground sills D E (fig. 2;) the small part of the pivot comes down beyond the plate, b, and enters a hole through a thick iron ring, e, (fig. 3;) this ring has the three arms projecting from it, which serve as pivots to the three friction rollers Imn; it is upon these rollers the upper plate, b, and the weight of the great roller rests: as the pivot, a, and the upper plate, b, turn round, the three rollers

roll round upon the under plate d; the iron ring, c, has no share in holding the weight, its use is only to keep the three rollers in their places, and in the same manner the small part of the pivot keeps the ring in its place.

A wooden trough is laid upon the beams, e e, at w, to receive the juice expressed from the canes by the rollers; the holes in the bottom of this trough, through which the pivots of the rollers pass, have their orifices above the surface of the liquor in the trough, so that it cannot get down to the friction rollers. A small trough leads from the trough at w, and conveys away the liquor,(going under the mule walk,) to the boiling house.

The operation of the machine is exceedingly simple; a person presents the ends of the canes to the rollers, fg; by their motion the canes are drawn in between them; another person behind bends the ends of the canes as they come through, that they may pass between the other two, g h, and thus come out again in the front of the machine, squeezed dry from the juice they before contained. The juice which is collected is conveyed to iron boilers, where it is boiled, with the the addition of a small quantity of quicklime, and the impurities which rise to the surface are scummed off. The boiling is continued till it acquires the consistence of syrup, after which it is put into shallow vessels, where it is allowed to cool and granulate. In general, it is afterwards put into hogsheads, in which it is imported to Europe, the bottoms of which are perforated, that the molasses, with which the sugar is mixed, may be allowed to drain off. Sometimes it is put into conical earthen vessels, open at both ends, the base of which is covered with moist clay, so that the water filters through the su gar, and carries with it a greater quantity of the molasses, and other impurities. The sugar thus treated is called clayed sugar. It is not different from the former, but being somewhat purer. The addition of quicklime in the boiling is supposed to take up some vegetable acids which prevent the granulation of the su gar. In this state the sugar is known in commerce by the name of raw or Muscovado sugar. It is still further purified by dissolving it in water, and boiling, when the impurities, which rise to the surface, are again removed: a quantity of lime is also added, and it is clarified with blood. When boiled down to a proper consistency, it is put into unglazed earthen vessels, of a conical shape, and

inverted, to allow the water from the moist clay, with which the base of the cone is covered, to pass through the sugar, and carry off its impurities.

According to the number of processes to which it has been subjected, it is called single or double refined sugar. Sugar in this state is of a white colour: it is well known for its sweet taste; it has little or no smell. It has some degree of transparency when it is crystallized. It is considerably hard, but it is brittle, and may be easily reduced to powder. It is phosphorescent in the dark. When the solution of sugar in water is concentrated, it crystallizes in the form of six-sided prisms, terminated by two-sided summits. The specific gravity of sugar is 1.4. When sugar is exposed to heat, it melts, swells up, becomes of a dark brown or black colour, emits air-bubbles with a peculiar smell, which has been called caromel. If a red heat be applied, it suddenly bursts into flames, with a kind of explosion. It is very soluble in water; at so low a temperature as 48° water dissolves its own weight of sugar. This power increases with the temperature of the water. When water is saturated with sugar, it is called syrup, which by concentration and rest affords crystals. Sugar is soluble in many of the acids. It is decomposed by sulphuric acid; when heat is applied, the acid itself is decomposed, and converted into sulphurous acid; and a great quantity of charcoal is deposited. Nitric acid acts on sugar with considerable violence; an effervescence is produced, nitrous gas is emitted, and the sugar is converted into oxalic and malic acids. Muriatic acid gas is slowly absorbed by sugar, which becomes of a brown colour, and acquires a very strong smell. Sugar is instantly dissolved, when it is thrown in the state of powder into liquid oxymuriatic acid; it is converted into malic acid, while the oxymuriatic acid is deprived of its oxygen, and reduced to the state of muriatic acid. Alcohol readily dissolves sugar. One part of sugar is soluble in four of boiling alcohol. Sugar also combines with the oils, and by this means they may be mixed with water. The fixed alkalies combine with sugar, and deprive it of its sweet taste; but by adding sulphuric acid, and precipitating the sul phate, which is formed by means of alcohol, the taste is restored. Some of the earths, as lime, combine with sugar, and form similar compounds. The sulphurets and phosphurets of the alkalies, and some of the earths decompose sugar, and reduce

Sugar is also obtained from the juice of the maple tree in North America. See MAPLE.

It has lately been proposed to extract sugar from the root of the beet; and the attempt has been made, even in the large way, by Achard of Berlin. The process which he followed is to boil the roots, cut them into slices, and extract the juice by pressure.

Many other plants also contain sugar, either in the roots, the sap, or the seeds. It exists in wheat, barley, beans, peas, and other leguminous seeds, especially when they are young, in considerable quantity. The uses of sugar are so familiar, that it is scarcely necessary to enumerate them. In most countries, where it can be obtained, it may be considered in some measure as a necessary of life. It contains a great proportion of nutritious matter; animals, when partially supplied with it, become fat and vigorous. It is not changed by the action of the air, so that it may be preserved for any length of time. It is employed to preserve other vegetable matters from putrefaction, and sometimes it is also advantageously applied to a similar purpose, in the preservation of animal It is used likewise in the substances. composition of some varnishes of ink, and

of some pigments, to communicate to them a degree of gloss or lustre.

SUIT, in law, is used in different senses: first, in a suit of law; and is divided into real and personal, and is the same with action real and personal; secondly, suit of court, or suit service, is an attendance that tenants owe to the court of their lord. Thirdly, suit covenant, is where the ancestor hath covenanted with another to sue to his court. Fourthly, suit custom, when a man and his ancestors have been seised, time out of mind, of his suit. Fifthly, suit real, or regal, when men come to the sheriff's town, or leet. Sixthly, suit signifies the following one in chase, as fresh suit. Lastly, it signifies a petition made to the king, or any great person.

SUKOTYRO, in natural history, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Bruta. Generic character: horn on each side near the eyes. The only species of this genus is the S. indicus, first noticed by a Dutch traveller in the seventeenth century, and which has indeed never been described by any other. It is represented as equal in size to a large ox, and possessing the snout of a hog, with ears rough and long, different from the position of those of all other quadrupeds, tail bushy, eyes upright in the head, and next to these having on each side a horn or tusk, approach ing in size to that of an elephant. It is said to be a native of Java, and to feed on herbage. As this account, however, does not appear to have been confirmed by any traveller since Nie whoffe's time, and some of his representations in natural history are extremely slovenly and incorrect, it does not appear a very blameable scepticism to doubt the existence of such an animal. See Mammalia, Plate XX. fig. 4. SULPHATES, in chemistry, salts formed by the combination of any base with the sulphuric acid; of these we shall notice only the sulphate of soda, known in the shops by the name of Glauber's salts. This salt was discovered by the alchymist Glauber; but since his time it has been largely used in medicine. Chemists have described various modes of obtaining this salt. It exists likewise native in mineral springs, and sometimes it effloresces on the walls of old buildings. Sulphate of soda crystallizes in six-sided prisms, bevelled at the extremities, and longitudinally grooved its taste is strongly saline and bitter. It is efflorescent, and when exposed to a very dry atmosphere, the surface of the crystals soon becomes white and opaque, and at length they fall into

SULPHITES, salts formed by the combination of any base with the sulphurous acid. These have always a disagreeable sulphurous taste; they are decomposed by the nitric, muriatic, and some other acids; they are converted into sulphates by exposure to the atmosphere, drawing from it the oxygen. These salts were first noticed and described by Stahl: they are mostly formed artificially by saturating the alkaline and earthy bases with sulphurous acid.

SULPHUR, an inflammable fossil, of which there are two species, viz. common natural sulphur, and volcanic natural sulphur. The colour of the natural sulphur is yellow, of different degrees of intensity; it occurs massive, disseminated, and crystallized. The crystals are middle sized and small, of which the surface is smooth and splendent. Internally it is intermediate between shining and glistening. It is soft and frangible. When placed on inflamed coals, it burns with a bluish flame, and emits a pungent suffocating vapour, and is totally volatilized. It is found in many parts of the world. It occurs commonly in masses, in gypsum, lime-stone, and marl: and in some places, with honey-stone, and bituminous wood. It is often found in veins that traverse primitive rocks; in veins of copper pyrites that traverse granite; in Siberia it is found in the gold mines of Catherineburg, and in the lead glance veins in the Altain mountains. Humboldt mentions a province of Quito, in which he discovered a bed composed of sulphur and quartz, in a mountain of mica slate; he likewise found great quantities of sulphur in primitive porphyry.

The volcanic natural sulphur is yellow, inclining to green: it occurs sometimes corroded; sometimes as a sublimate in flowers. It is glistening, and its lustre is resinous, inclining to adamantine. It occurs only in volcanic countries, where it is found in greater or smaller quantity among the lava. Solfatara, in the vicinity of Vesuvius, is one of the most famous

repositories of natural volcanic sulphur, and is there collected in considerable quantities for the purposes of commerce. It is found also in Iceland, in Etna, and in the Lapari islands. It occurs likewise in the island of Teneriffe, and in the West India islands; in Java, and the East Indies. Having thus described this substance mineralogically, we turn to it in a chemical view.

Sulphur is a simple undecompounded combustible substance, which is universally diffused in nature; but most commonly in a state of combination with mineral, vegetable, or animal matters. It is found in some mineral waters, but in greatest abundance in volcanic countries, where it is a valuable article of commerce. Sulphur, as it is extracted from minerals and purified by art, is a hard, brittle sub. stance, of a yellow colour, which can be easily reduced to powder. It is always opaque, has a lamellated fracture, and becomes electric by friction. The specific gravity, after it is melted, does not exceed 1.99. It has no smell, and very little perceptible taste. When it is rubbed some time it is volatilized, and diffuses a peculiar and slightly fœtid odour, by which it is easily distinguished. It leaves on the skin which has been in contact with it a very strong smell, which remains for some hours. It is insoluble in water. Light has no sensible effect on sulphur. But if a roll of sulphur be held in the hand for a little, it begins to crackle, and at last it breaks to pieces. When a temperature equal to that of boiling water is applied to sulphur, it melts, becomes liquid and transparent, and changes to a brown red colour: but on cooling, if the fusion is not too long continued, it resumes the yellow colour. If it be permitted to cool slowly, it crystallizes into prismatic needles. The crystals are better formed by pouring out part of the liquid sulphur as soon as the surface has become solid. If the heat be continued, it becomes thick and viscid; and if it be then poured into cold water, it retains its softness, so that it is employed for taking impressions of seals and medals. In this state they are called sulphurs. When sulphur is exposed to heat in close vessels, it is volatilized or sublimed in the form of very fine powder, known under the name of flowers of sulphur. Sulphur enters into combination with oxygen, azote, hydrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. When sulphur is kept some time in fusion in an open vessel, it assumes a red colour, and becomes viscid. After it is cooled, it retains its red colour, VOL. XI.

which is owing to the combination of oxygen in small proportion with the sulphur. In this state it has been denominated the oxide of sulphur.

According to the experiments of Dr. Thomson, the oxide of sulphur, formed by melting the substance in a deep vessel, is of a dark violet colour, fibrous fracture, and tough consistence; the specific gravity is 2.3. Another oxide was formed by passing a current of oxymuriatic acid gas through flowers of sulphur. When sulphur is burnt in the open air, it emits a pale blue flame, with a great quantity of white smoke. When these fumes are mixed with water, it is found to possess acid properties. This is a combination of sulphur with a greater proportion of oxygen than exists in the oxide, and is called sulphurous acid. But when sulphur is burnt in oxygen gas, a very rapid combustion takes place, with a reddish white flame, and it combines with a greater proportion of oxygen. When the fumes, which are copiously emitted during this combustion, are collected, and mixed with water, it exhibits the properties of an acid, which is the sulphuric acid. Thus it appears, that sulphur combines with oxygen in four different proportions. In two of these, in which the proportions are the smallest, the compounds are denominated oxydes; but in the two others, in which the proportion of oxygen is increased, the compounds are acids, the properties of which will be afterwards noticed.

SULPHURETS, in chemistry. Sulphur combines with the fixed alkalies, forming compounds called sulphurets. These exist only in a concrete state, as when dissolved in water, a decomposition takes place. We may notice, as an example, the sulphuret of potash, which is formed by exposing to heat, in a covered crucible, equal weights of sulphur and the dry concrete alkali. When it has become concrete, it is firm and brittle, and of a reddish brown colour, which, from its resemblance to the liver of an animal, obtained the name of hepar sulphuris, liver of sulphur. This substance, while dry, is inodorous, but when moistened it acquires a fetid smell, from the production of sulphuretted hydrogen. It fuses when exposed to a strong heat. A singular property belonging to this substance is, that when fused with some metals, as gold, a combination is formed, which is soluble in water.

SULPHURETTED hydrogen, is a compound of sulphur and hydrogen, and it owes its origin to the decomposition of

N n