washed with water, it has a thick, oily ap. pearance like tallow, is soluble in alcohol, and when distilled yields acetic acid, and an oily matter similar to tallow in odour and consistence Starch is insoluble in alcohol, but is soluble in the alkalies; in pure potash it swells up, becomes transparent and gelatinous, and is then susceptible of solution in alcohol. The component parts of starch, as appears by distilling it, and by the action of re-agents, are, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. Starch exists in a great number of vegetable substances, but chiefly in the roots and seeds, and particularly those which are employ. ed as food. Starch, it is well known, may be obtained from the potatoe. If the potatoe be grated down, and washed with water till it comes off pure and colourless, this water, being left at rest, deposits a fine white powder, which assumes something of a crystallized appearance, and is heavier than wheat starch. It is generally mixed or combined with other principles, and sometimes so intimately as not easily to be separated. It is not completely formed, except in certain states of vegetation. In nutritive grains it is perfect only when they have attained maturity, before this it is in a state approaching to mucilage, mixed with saccharine matter.

STARLING. See STURNUS. STATICE, in botany, thrift, a genus of the Pentandria Pentagynia class and order. Natural order of Aggregata. Plumbagines, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx one-petalled, entire, plaited, scariose; petals five; seed one, superior. There are thirty-nine species.

STATICS, a term which the modern improvements in knowledge have made it necessary to introduce into physico-mathematical science. It was found convenient to distribute the doctrines of universal mechanics into two classes, which required both a different mode of considera. tion, and different principles of reasoning. We are indebted to Archimedes for the fundamental principles of this science. He investigated the doctrine of the centre of gravity, and the theory of the lever. But the subject of moving forces was not properly understood, till Galileo considered it very accurately in his work on "Local Motion." In this, he considers a change of motion as the exact and adequate mea. sure of a moving force; and he considers every kind of pressure as competent to the production of such changes. He applied this principle to the motion of bodies by

the action of gravity, and gave the theory of projectiles. Sir Isaac Newton took up the subject nearly as Galileo had left it, and applied the doctrines, which had been previously called in aid of mechanics only, to explain the celestial motions; and the magnificence of this subject caused it to occupy the whole attention of mathematicians. The "Principia" contained, indeed, propositions equally conducive to the improvement of common mechanics, and to the complete understanding of the mechanical actions of bodies. Philoso. phers began to make their applications. They saw that every kind of work that is performed by a machine may be considered abstractedly as a retarding force; that the impulse of water or wind, which are employed as moving powers, act by means of pressures which they exert on the impelled point of the machine; and that the machine itself may be considered as an assemblage of bodies, moveable in certain limited circumstances, with determined directions and proportions of velocity. From these considerations resulted a general abstract condition of a body acted upon by known powers: at length was determined a new kind of equilibrium, not thought of by ancient mechanicians, between the resistance to the machine performing work and the moving power, which exactly balance each other; and is indicated, not by the rest, but by the uniform motion of the machine. Hence also the mathematician was enabled to calculate the precise motion of water which would completely absorb, or balance the superiority of pressure by which water is forced through a sluice, pipe, &c. with a constant velocity.

Thus the general doctrines of motion came to be considered in two points of view, according as they balanced each other in a state of rest, or of uniform mo. tion. These two ways of considering the same subject required both different principles and a different manner of reasoning. The first has been named statics, as expressing that rest which is the test of this kind of equilibrium. The second has been called dynamics, or universal mechanics, because the different kinds of motion are characteristic of the powers or forces which produce them. A knowledge of both is indispensably necessary for acquiring any useful practical knowledge of machines: and it was ignorance of the doctrines of accelerated and retarded motions, which made the progress of practical mechanical knowledge so very slow and

imperfect. The mechanics, even of the moderns, before Galileo, went no further than to state the proportion of the power and resistance which would be balanced by the intervention of a given machine, or the proportion of the parts of a machine, by which two known forces may balance each other. This view of the matter introduced a principle, which even Galileo considered as a mechanical axiom, viz. that what is gained in force, by means of a machine, is exactly compensated by the additional time which it obliges us to employ. This is not quite accurate, and not only prevents improvement in the construction of machines, but leads to erroneous maxims of construction. The two principles of dynamics teach us, that there is a certain proportion of the machine dependent on the kind and proportion of the power and resistance, which enables the machine to perform the greatest possible work. It is highly proper, therefore, to keep separate these two ways of consid ering machines, that both may be improved to the utmost, and then to blend them together in every practical discussion. Statics, therefore, is preparatory to the proper study of mechanics; but it does not hence derive all its importance. It is the sole foundation of many useful parts of knowledge. This will be best seen by a brief enumeration. 1. It comprehends all the doctrines of the excitement and propagation of pressure, through the parts of solid bodies, by which the energies of machines are produced. A pressure is exerted on the impelled point of a machine,` such as the float-boards or buckets of a mill-wheel. This excites a pressure at the pivots of its axle, which act on the points of support. This must be understood, both as to direction and intensity, that it may be effectually resisted. A pressure is also excited at the acting tooth of the cog-wheel, on the same axle by which it urges round another wheel, exerting similar pressures on its pivots, and on the acting tooth perhaps of a third wheel. Thus a pressure is ultimately excited in the working point of the machine, perhaps a wiper, which lifts a heavy stamper, to let it fall again on some matter to be pounded. Now statics teaches us the intensities and direction of all those pressures, and therefore how much remains at the working point of the machine unbalanced by resistance. 2 It comprehends every circumstance which influences the stability of heavy bodies; the investigation and properties of the centre of gravity;

the theory of the construction of arches, vaults and domes; the attitudes of animals. 3. The strength of materials, and the principles of construction, so as to make the proper adjustment of strength and strain, in every part of a machine, edifice, or structure of any kind. Statics, therefore, furnishes us with what may be called a theory of carpentry, and gives us proper instructions for framing floors, roofs, centres, &c. 4. Statics comprehends the whole doctrine of the pressure of fluids, whether liquid or æriform, whether arising from their weight, or from any external action. Hence, therefore, we derive our knowledge of the stability of ships, or their power of maintaining themselves in a position nearly upright, in opposition to the action of the wind on their sails. We learn on what circumstances of figure and stowage this quality depends, and what will augment or diminish it. See DYNAMICS, MECHANICS, &c.

STATION, in practical geometry, &c. is a place pitched upon to make an observation, or take an angle, or such like, as in surveying, measuring heights and distances, levelling, &c. An accessible height is taken from one station; but an inaccessible height or distance is only to be taken by making two stations, from two places whose distance asunder is known. In making maps of counties, provinces, &c. stations are fixed upon certain eminences, &c. of the country, and angles taken from thence to the several towns, villages, &c

In surveying, the instrument is to be adjusted by the needle, or otherwise, to answer the points of the horizon at every station; the distance from hence to the last station is to be measured, and an angle is to be taken to the next station; which process, repeated, includes the chief practice of surveying.

STATIONARY, in astronomy, signifies the appearance of a planet, when it seems to remain immovable on the same point of the zodiac for several days. As the earth, whence we view the motions of the planets, is out of the centre of their orbits, the planets appear to proceed irregularly; being sometimes seen to go forwards, that is, from west to east, which is called the direction: sometimes to go backwards, or from east to west, which is called the retrogradation. Now between these two states there must be an intermediate one, wherein the planet neither appears to go backwards nor forwards, but to stand still, and keep the same place in her orbit, which is called her station; and this will

happen when the line that joins the earth's and planet's centre is constantly directed to the same point in the heavens; that is, when it keeps parallel to itself. For all right lines, drawn from any part of the earth's orbit parallel to one another, do all point to the same star; the distance of these lines being insensible, in comparison of that of the fixed stars.

Saturn is seen stationary at the distance of somewhat more than a quadrant from the Sun; Jupiter at the distance of fifty-two degrees; and Mars at a much greater distance. Saturn is stationary eight days, Jupiter four, Mars two, Venus one and a half, and Mercury a half, though the several stations are not always equal.

STATISTICS, a modern term adopted to express a more comprehensive view of the various particulars, constituting the natural and political strength and resources of a country, than was usually embraced by writers on political arithmetic. Its principal objects are, the extent and population of a state; the occupation of the different classes of its inhabitants; the progress of agriculture, of manufactures, and of internal and foreign trade; the income and wealth of the inhabitants, and the proportion drawn from them for the public service by taxation; the condition of the poor; the state of schools, and other institutions of public utility; with every other subject, the knowledge of which tends to establish the true civil policy of the country, and consequently to promote its prosperity.

The great change which has taken place in the business of government, since the introduction of the modern system of warfare, by which the time and labour of a considerable number of persons is wholly appropriated to the profession of arms; and particularly, since the adoption of the borrowing system for defraying the expenses of war has rendered statistical information of much more importance than formerly, the naval and military force which a country is capable of furnishing depending essentially on the state of population and employment, and the public finances becoming, by a continual accumulation of taxes, intimately connected. with the state of agriculture, consumption, and foreign trade. Many errors and inconsistencies of former statesmen and legislators might have been avoided by a better knowledge of the state of the country; yet,

although the utility of cultivating this branch of knowledge has become so obvious, few of the governments of Europe have appeared much disposed to promote statisical inquiries. It will be a subject of wonder to future times, that even in Great Britain, so late as the year 1800, the state of the population, on which its capability of defence so much depended, was a subject of so much uncertainty, as to be estimated by many persons at but little more than half what it was afterward ascertained to be.

As a comparison of such statistical accounts as have been published of the different states of Europe would be in a great degree useless and unsatisfactory, since the violent and essential alterations most of them have recently undergone, we shall confine ourselves to the principal particulars relative to Great Britain, as deduced from public documents, and other authentic sources.

The island of Great Britain is about 590 miles in length, and the circuit of its coast makes about 1800 miles: the part constituting England and Wales is in length, from Newhaven in Sussex, to Berwick upon Tweed, 355 miles, and in breadth, from the South Foreland in Kent, to the Land's End in Cornwall, 325 miles.

The area of England and Wales, computed in acres, has been very differently stated by different authors; for as it has never been ascertained by an actual survey, various modes of computation have been adopted, which have disagreed materially in the result. The following are the principal estimates on this point.

Nursery grounds

Fruit and kitchen gardens

Pleasure grounds

2,100,000

35,000

8.500

45,000 16,000 Land depastured by cattle 17,000,000 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods 1,600,000 Ways, water, &c. 1,282,100

Cultivated land 31,056,600 Commons and waste 6,277,800

37,334,400

The number of horses for which duty Is paid is 1,780,000. Their annual consumption of food, reckoned by the produce of acres, is

Nobility and gentry

The total population of Great Britain, as it appeared by the returns made in 1801, including the army, navy, and merchant seamen, was 10,942,646; to which, if the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and the Scilly islands, are added, it may be taken at 11,000,000. See POPULATION. But it is evident, that the welfare of a nation, and its political strength, do not depend so much on its numerical population, as on the manner in which that population is employed; the proportion of productive to unproductive labourers of which it consists. No

accurate account of this kind has ever been taken, but the following estimate of the different classes of persons who compose the present population of Great Britain cannot be far from the truth:

5,000

18,000

14,000

240,000

Navy and marines

130,000

Seamen in the merchant service

155,000

Lightermen, watermen, &c.

3,500

6,000

Judges, counsel, attornies, &c.

14,000

Merchants, brokers, factors, &c.

25,000

40,000

1,680,000

50,000

Shopkeepers

160,000

Schoolmasters and mistresses

20,000

8,000,000

£. 812,000,000

170,000,000

20,000,000

42,500,000

In the year 1795, Mr. Pitt estimated the total landed property at 750 millions, and personal property at 600 millions,

90,000,000

10,600,000

6,600,000

2,000,000

12.800,000

6,000,000

24,000,000

16,300,000

20,000,000

£1.272 800,000

making a total of 1350 millions. But even from the above more moderate statement, in which most of the articles are proba