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deliberately add to the list persons whose merit and abilities are likely to prove advantageous to the institution; their qualification, however, is but seventy-five guiA candidate for this honour must be proposed by a manager at the monthly meeting of that body; the name is suspended in the room for one month, when a ballot takes place, and a majority of two-thirds is required in favour of the admission after he has thus become a proprietor, he is entitled to his certificate, the printed catalogue, other papers of the institution, and tickets of admission, free of any further expense.

The property of the institution is exclusively vested in the proprietors, who, in their collective state, are enabled to dispose of it; consequently no sale, mortgage, or any kind or manner of involving its interests, can possibly occur, unless by consent of the whole. In return for this, they, and the subscribers and honorary members, have the common right of admission to the lectures, library, and reading rooms, &c. &c. every day, and at all hours, from eight o'clock in the morning till eleven at night, with the usual exceptions of Sundays, holidays, and Saturdays, when the doors are closed at three o'clock in the afternoon; the proprietors have, besides, one transferable ticket each, which admits to the places already enumerated. A proprietor, who may be desirous of transfer ring his right in the institution, must inform the committee of managers of the name and residence of the intended pur. chaser in writing, who is ballotted for at their next meeting, unless the transfer should be to the possessor's son, who is admitted without that ceremony; if the person should be rejected, another may be proposed; and if he also should be disapproved of, the proprietor wishing to sell may claim from the funds of the institution such sum as may then be fixed in the bye-laws as the qualification of a proprietor. Upon the decease of a proprietor, his executors may proceed, with some little variation, in the same manner prescribed for the sale of a proprietorship. Persons of rank and superior qualifications, both natives and foreigners, may be elected honorary members; but two negatives will exclude them upon the ballot. The rights of life and annual subscribers necessarily extend no further than to the use of the rooms and library, nor can they be admitted such without the ceremony of proposing and electing. Subscribers to the library, or to particular

courses of lectures, are admitted upon terms fixed by the managers, who also admit ladies in the same way, but to the lectures only.

A meeting of the proprietors was held in October, 1895, when it was resolved, that the sum of 40,000Z. should as speedily as possible be invested in the funds, in order that a permanent basis might be founded to secure the success of the institution; other sums were at the same time directed to be placed in floating public securities, to be disposed of when the produce should be wanted. The rents, revenues, and annual income, to be applied for rent, taxes, salaries, repairs, &c. &c. and in purchasing foreign and domestic journals, periodical and other new works, for the use of the reading room : the surplus beyond these purposes was directed by the meeting to be used for augmenting the library and the philosophical apparatus.

We shall conclude our account of this excellent institution in the words of the rules for the use of the library. "No person shall take down any of the books in the library; but a note or card, containing the name of the person applying, and the title of the book, must be given to the librarian or attendant, who shall supply him with the book required. No person shall take away any book belonging to the library." A manuscript catalogue is kept for the subscribers in the room; but a printed one is hereafter to be prepared and delivered. "No librarian, or attendant, or any other officer or servant of the institution, shall receive any fee, perquisite, or gratuity, on account of, or during the execution of their office, under penalty of immediate dismission from the service of the institution."

SOCMEN, or SOKEMEN, such tenants as held their lands and tenements in socage; but the tenants in ancient demesne seem most properly to be called

socmans.

SOCRATIC philosophy, the doctrines and opinions, with regard to morality and religion, maintained and taught by Socrates. By the character of Socrates, left us by the ancients, particularly by his scholars Plato, Laertius, &c. he appears to have been one of the best and the wisest persons in all the heathen world. To him is ascribed the first introduction of moral philosophy, which is what is meant by that usual saying, "that Socrates first called philosophy down from heaven to earth;" that is, from the contemplation of the heavens and

heavenly bodies, he led men to consider themselves, their own passions, opinions, faculties, duties, actions, &c. He wrote nothing himself, yet all the Grecian sects of philosophers refer their origin to his discipline, particularly the Platonists, Peripatetics, Academics, Cyrenaics, Stoics, &c. but the greatest part of his philosophy we have in the works of Plato.

SODA, in mineralogy and chemistry, is a species of fossil salts, divided by mineralogists into common and radiated natron. Common natron is of a yellowish grey colour: it occurs in fine flakes, or in dusty particles; it has a sharp alkaline taste; effervesces with nitric acid; is easily soluble in water, and its solution changes blue vegetable tinctures to a green; it is fusible before the blow-pipe. It is found either as an efflorescence on the surface of the soil; or on decomposing certain rocks; or on the sides and bottonis of lakes, that become dry by the heat and drought of summer. It is obtained in great abundance in many parts of Germany, and also in Egypt. That from Egypt has, according to Klaproth, yielded to analysis the following substan

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The radiated natron is of a yellowish grey colour: it occurs in crusts, and in capillary or acicular crystals, which are aggregated on one another; it is glistening and translucent. This is found native about two days journey from Fezzan, at the bottom of a rocky mountain, forming crusts, usually the thickness of a knife, and sometimes even an inch thick, on the surface of the earth. It is always crystalline. Besides the great quantity carried to Egypt and other parts, there are said to be fifty tons annually sent to Tripoli. It is not adulterated with salt. Though there is abundance of salt in this part of Africa, it must be observed, that the salt mines are situated on the sea coast; whereas the radiated natron, called trona, occurs at the distance of twentyeight days journey up the country. It is principally employed in the manufacture of glass and soap, and also for

VOL. XI.

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Soda was long regarded as a simple body; it has, however, at length been decomposed by Mr. Davy. See the article POTASH, where a brief account is given of the discovery.

SOFFITA, or SOFFIT, in architecture, any plafond, or ceiling, formed of cross beams of flying cornishes, the square compartments or pannels of which are enriched with sculpture, painting, or gilding.

SOHO, the name of a set of works, or manufactory of a variety of hard wares, belonging to Mr. Boulton, situated on the borders of Staffordshire, within two miles of Birmingham, now so justly celebrated as to claim a short notice in this place. About thirty or forty years ago, the premises consisted of a small mill and a few obscure dwellings. Mr. Bolton in conjunction with Mr. Fothergill, then his partner, at an expense of nine thousand pounds, erected a handsome and extensive edifice, with a view of manufacturing metallic toys. The first productions consisted of buttons, buckles, watchchains, trinkets, and such other articles as were peculiar to Birmingham. Novelty, taste and variety, were, however, always conspicuous: and plated wares, known by the name of Sheffield plate, comprising a great variety of useful and ornamental articles, became another permanent subject of manufacture. To open channels for the consumption of these commodities, all the northern part of Europe was explored by the mercantile partner, Mr. Fothergill. A wide and extensive correspondence was thus established, the undertaking became well known, and the manufacturer, by becom ing his own merchant, eventually enjoyed a double profit. Impelled by an ardent attachment to the arts, and by the patriotic ambition of forming his favourite Soho into a fruitful seminary of artists, the proprietor extended his views, and men of taste and talents were now sought for and liberally patronized. A successful

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imitation of the French or moulic ornaments, consisting of vases, tripods, candelabra, &c. &c. extended the celebrity of the works. Services of plate, and other works in silver, both massive and airy, were added, and an assay office was established in Birmingham. Mr. Watt, the ingenious improver of the steam-engine, is now in partnership with Mr. Boulton, and they carry on at Soho a manufactory of steam-engines, not less beneficial to the public than lucrative to themselves. This valuable machine, the nature and excellencies of which are described in another place, (see STEAM-ENGINE,) Mr. Boulton has applied to the operation of coining; and to the rolling of iron from bars into thin sheets; to the purposes of button-making, and a number of other mechanical operations, of the highest utility to the national wealth and prosperity.

SOIT FAIT COMME IL EST DESIRE', be it done as it is desired, a form used when the king gives the royal assent to a private bill preferred in parliament.

SOL, or Sov, a French coin made up of copper mixed with a little silver.

SOL, the sun, in astronomy, astrology, &c. See Sux.

SOL, in chemistry, is gold; thus called, from an opinion that this metal is in a particular manner under the influence of the sun.

SOL, in heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in the arms of sovereign prin

ces.

SOLANDRA, in botany, named in honour of Daniel Charles Solander, a Swede, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: calyx bursting; corolla clavate, funnelform, very large; berry four-celled, many-seeded. There is but one species, viz. S. grandiflora, great flowered Solandra, a native of Jamaica.

SOLANUM, in botany, nightshade, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Lurida. Solaneæ, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla wheel-shaped; anthers subcoalescent, opening at top by a double pore; berry two-celled. There are ninetythree species, of which the following are the most remarkable. S. dulcamora, woody nightshade, a native of Britain and of Africa, is a slender climbing plant, rising to six or more feet in height. The leaves are generally oval, pointed, and of a deep-green colour; the flowers hang in loose clusters, of a purple colour, and divided into five

pointed segments. It grows in hedges well supplied with water, and flowers about the end of June. On chewing the roots, we first feel a bitter, then a sweet taste: hence the name. The berries are said to be poisonous, and may easily be mistaken by children for currants. The younger branches are directed for use, and may be employed either fresh or dried; they should be gathered in the autumn. This plant is generally given in decoction or infusion. Several authors take notice, that the dulcamora partakes of the milder powers of the nightshade, joined to a resolvent and saponaceous quality. S. nigrum, garden nightshade, common in many places in Britain, about dunghills and waste places. It rises to about two feet in height. The stalk herbaceous; the leaves alternate, irregularly oval, indented, and clothed with soft hairs The flowers are white; the berries black and shining. It appears to possess the deleterious qualities of the other nightshades in a very high degree, and even the smell of the plant is said to cause sleep. The berries are equally poisonous with the leaves, causing cardialgia and delirium, and violent distortions of the limbs in children. In ancient times it was employed externally as a discutient and anodyne in some cutaneous affections, tumefactions of the glands, ulcers, and disorders of the eyes. A variety of the solanum nigrum, a native of the West Indies, is called guma by the negroes. It is so far from having any deleterious quality, that it is daily served up at table as greens or spinach. It has an agreeable bitter taste. S. lycopersicum, the love-apple, or tomato, is cultivated in gardens in the warmer parts of Europe, and in all tropical countries. The stalk is herbaceous: the leaves pinnated, oval, pointed, and deeply divided The flowers are on simple racemi; they are small and yellow. The berry is of the size of a plum: they are smooth, shining, soft; and are either of a yellow or reddish colour.

S. tuberosum, or common potatoe, is a species of this genus, which is too well known to require description.

SOLAR, something belonging to the sun; thus the solar system is that system of the world wherein the heavenly bodies are made to revolve round the sun as the centre of their motion. Also the solar year is that consisting of three hundred and sixty-five days, five hours and fortynine minutes, in opposition to the lunar

year, consisting of three hundred and fifty-four days.

SOLDANELLA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Preciæ. Lysimachiæ, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla bell-shaped, lacero multifid; capsule one-celled, many-toothed at the top. There is only one species, viz. S. alpina, Alpine soldanella.

SOLDER, SODDER, or SODER, a metallic or mineral composition used in soldering, or joining together, other metals. See the next article. Solders are inade of gold, silver, copper, tin, bismuth, and lead; usually observing,, that in the composition there be some of the metal that is to be soldered mixed with some higher and finer metals. Goldsmiths usually make four kinds of solder, viz. solder of eight, where to seven parts of silver there is one of brass or copper; solder of six, where only a sixth part is copper; solder of four, and solder of three. It is the mixture of copper in the solder that makes raised plate come always cheaper than flat. The solder used by plumbers is made of two pounds of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodness is tried by melting it and pouring the bigness of a crownpiece upon a table; for if good, there will arise little bright shining stars therein. The solder for copper is made like that of the plumbers, only with copper and tin; for very nice works, instead of tin they sometimes use a quantity of silver. Solder for tin is made of two thirds of tin and one of lead; but where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ pipes, where the juncture is scarce discernible, it is made of one part of bismuth and three parts of pewter.

SOLDERING, among mechanics, the joining and fastening together two pieces of the same metal, or of two different metals, by the fusion and application of some metallic composition on the extremities of the metals to be joined.

SOLE, in natural history. See PLEURO

NECTES.

SOLECISM, in grammar, a false manner of speaking, contrary to the use of language and the rules of grammar, either in respect of declension, conjugation, or syntax.

SOLEN, in natural history, razor-sheath, a genus of the Vermes Testacea class and order. Animal an ascidia; shell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends; hinge with a subulate reflected tooth, often double, and not inserted in the opposite valve. There are about twenty-four species,

some whereof are straight, others crooked, some red, others variegated with brown and blue, some brown and white, others of a violet-purple colour. This last is a beautiful smooth shell, from three to six inches long, and from onethird to three quarters of an inch in diameter. There is also another not inelegant species, variegated with brown and blue, and a little arcuated. The S. anatinus has the shell ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcate rib at the hinge; the shell is pellucid, white, thin like paper; one end rounded and closed, the other gaping like the beak of a bird; tooth in each valve resembling an ear-picker.

SOLID, in philosophy, a body whose parts are so firmly connected together, as not to give way or slip from each other upon the smallest impression; in which sense solid stands opposed to fluid. Geometricians define a solid to be the third species of magnitude, or that which has three dimensions, viz. length, breadth, and thickness or depth. A solid may be conceived to be formed by the revolution, or direct motion, of a superficies of any figure whatever, and is always terminated or contained under one or more planes or surfaces, as a surface is under one or more lines.

Solids are commonly divided into regular and irregular. The regular solids are those terminated by regular and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the tetrahedron, which consists of four equal triangles; the cube, or hexahedron, of six equal squares; the octahedron, of eight equal triangles; the dodecahedron, of twelve; and the icosihedron, of twenty equal triangles. The irregular solids are almost infinite, comprehending all such as do not come under the definition of regular solids; as the sphere, cylinder, cone, parallelogram, prism, parallelopiped, &c.

SOLID numbers, are those which arise from the multiplication of a plane number by any other whatsoever; as 18 is a solid number made of 6 (which is plane) multiplied by 3; or of 9 multiplied by 2.

SOLID problem, in mathematics, is one which cannot be geometrically solved unless by the intersection of a circle and a conic section: or by the intersection of two other conic sections, besides the circle. As to describe an isosceles triangle on a given right line, whose angle at the base shall be triple to that at the vertex. This will help to inscribe a regular hep

tagon in a given circle; and may be resolved by the intersection of a parabola and a circle. This problem also helps to inscribe a nonagon in a circle, and may be solved by the intersection of a parabola and an hyperbola between its asymptotes, viz. to describe an isosceles triangle, whose angle at the base shall be quadruple of that at the vertex. And such a problem as this hath four solutions, and no more; because two conic sections can cut one another but in four points.

SOLIDAGO, in botany, golden rod, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class and order. Natural order of Compositæ Discoideæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx scales imbricate, closed; corollets of the ray about five; seed down simple; receptacle naked. There are thirty species. The golden rods are natives of North America, excepting two species, which are found in Europe, and two others which were discovered by Houston in New Spain, and have not been adopted by Linnæus, or any other author.

SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body, by which it excludes all other bodies from the place which itself possesses: and as it would be absurd to suppose that two bodies could possess one and the same place at the same time, it follows, that the softest bodies are equally solid with the hardest. Among geometricians the solidity of a body denotes the quantity or space contained in it, and-is called also its solid content.

SOLIDITY, in architecture, is applied both to the consistence of the ground, whereon the foundation of a building is laid, and to a massive in masonry, of extraordinary thickness, without any cavity

within.

SOLSTICE, in astronomy, that time when the Sun is in one of the solstitial points; that is, when he is at his greatest distance from the equator, 'thus called, because he then appears to stand still, and not to change his distance from the equator for some time; an appearance owing to the obliquity of our sphere, and which those living under the equator are strangers to. The solstices are two in each year, the æstival, or summer solstice; and the hyemal or winter solstice. The summer solstice is when the Sun seems to describe the tropic of Cancer, which is on June 22, when he makes the longest day; the winter solstice is when the Sun enters the first degree, or seems to describe the tropic of Capricorn, which

is on December 22, when he makes the shortest day. This is to be understood as in our northern hemisphere; for in the southern, the Sun's entrance into Capricorn makes the summer solstice, and that into Cancer the winter solstice. The two points of the ecliptic, wherein the Sun's greatest ascent above the equator, and his descent below it, are terminated, are called the solstitial points; and a circle, supposed to pass through the poles of the world and these points, is called the solstitial colure. The summer solstitial point is in the beginning of the first degree of Cancer, and is called the æstival, or summer point; and the winter solstitial point is in the beginning of the first degree of Capricorn, and is called the winter point. These two points are diametrically opposite to each other.

SOLUM plantarum, in botany and gar dening, the natural soil of plants, or that which is best adapted to their growth. In the culture, therefore, of plants, it is of importance to have a distinct knowledge of those kinds of soil which are adapted to the several genera and spe

cies.

SOLUTION, in chemistry, is the perfect union of a solid substance with a fluid, so as apparently to form one homogeneous liquid. The fluid is termed the solvent, or menstruum. A solution is distinguished from a mixture by being perfectly clear, and from the particles of the solid not separating from the mass when remaining at rest.

SOMMETI, a mineral named from the mountain Somma, where it was first found. It is usually mixed with volcanic productions. It crystallizes in prisms, sometimes terminated by pyramids. Colour white, and somewhat transparent. It cuts glass. The specific gravity is 3.27. Infusible by the blow-pipe; and according to Vauquelin, it is compos

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