and agriculture have been approved by the trustees and will be begun as soon as adequate funds are secured. The direction of the affairs of the institution is vested in a board of trustees in New York City, of which the president is Mr. D. S. Dodge.

The University of St. Joseph, at Beirut, is a Catholic institution which received the Papal sanction in 1881, and, under the charge of the fathers of the Order of St. Joseph, has maintained vigorous existence to the present time. This institution is formed after French models, including both secondary and university departments. The oriental faculty has been especially distinguished for the erudition of its graduates, and the large alumni association includes many eminent scientists and oriental specialists.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

RUSSIA.

CONTENTS.-Statistics of primary schools, 1911; the primary education bill; commercial education; agricultural education.

The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1912 contained a brief survey of education in Russia, including the organization of the public system and an account of pending legislation as related in particular to primary education. Since that report was published the Russian census of 1911 has been issued, and according to the Statesman's Year-Book presents the following statistics of primary schools throughout the Empire:

The foregoing table shows increase in the total of primary schools and enrollment above that reported for 1910-11 in the Russian yearbook; for the enrollment the increase amounts to nearly 2,000,000 pupils. The figures may not be entirely accurate, as, from the extent and character of the Empire and the imperfect statistical methods, it is hardly possible to show the status of primary schools from year to year; but the general development, political and social, for example, the growing independence and activity of the zemstvos (county authorities) and the efforts for the improvement of the rural communities, and furthermore the support given in the Duma to the bill for compulsory education, make it certain that provision for primary education is rapidly extending.

THE PRIMARY EDUCATION BILL.

In 1911 the Third State Duma approved a project of a proposed law in regard to universal primary education in Russia. This proposal was sent up to the Council of State in January, 1912, but the Right

Party of the council made drastic changes in the propositions of the projected law which were not accepted by the Duma, and therefore the bill was virtually rejected.

The conflict between the cabinet ministers and the Fourth Duma during the present year has prevented any progress in legislation affecting public education.

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.

Among the modern movements that are taking place in Russia, special importance attaches to the provision for commercial and agricultural education.

The commercial schools of Russia are established either by the merchant societies of cities or by private individuals, but they are under the control of the Ministry of Trade and Industry.

The following information pertaining to this class of special schools is derived from a recent consular report on the subject:1

The following shows the grouping of pupils by nationalities: Russians, 33,030; Poles, 12,220; other Slavs, 185; total, 45,435. The Hebrew pupils numbered 20,136; Germans, 2,957; Lithuanians, 2,703; other nationalities and pupils concerning whom no information has been obtained, 6,695.

The expenses for running the schools amounted in 1911 to $5,289,052, while the revenues were $5,312,298, thus leaving a surplus of $23,246.

The principal source of revenue of the schools is the tuition fees, which represent. about 93 per cent of the same.

The special courses are similarly placed, 89.9 per cent being covered by fees. Descending in the scale of types, the importance of these fees decreases; in the case of commercial schools it is 62.1 per cent, and in trade schools 51 per cent. In private commercial colleges the fees make 86.3 per cent, and in the schools 99.8 per cent. Nonprivate institutions are to a high degree dependent on fees for diplomas and certificates, viz, 12.8 per cent in the case of the higher type, 8 per cent in that of trade classes, and 5.9 per cent in that of schools.

This last-named source of income does not apply to colleges of the highest (or university type), nor to courses on special subjects.

Another source of revenue is the school tax on trade certificates. The Government treasury gives but very slight assistance to the schools, about 14 per cent of the revenues.

1 From a statement forwarded by Mr. John H. Snodgrass, American consul general, Moscow, March, 1913.

Of the 399 schools, only 73 have their own buildings, the value of which amounts to $6,500,000. These figures afford a clue to the importance of the various types of institutions in the minds of the Russian merchant and business man himself.

Another matter of interest is the social class from which the various groups of students are drawn. The total is derived by 10.8 per cent from gentlemen's families, by 1.1 per cent from those of clergymen, and 16.3 per cent from professional circles, by 43.2 per cent from the lower middle classes, by 23 per cent from peasants, by 4.7 per cont from miscellaneous sources, and 1.1 per cent is contributed by foreigners.

Thus, the middle class furnishes the largest per cent of students, not only for all the institutions, but for each type taken individually, with the sole exception of the trade classes; in these the peasants lead, with 43.3 per cent of all the students.

These data point to the conclusion that commercial training is most in demand by the inferior type of business men, affording as it does a preparation for the intended calling as well as a form of general education, while the higher classes lay greater stress on general education and erudition. The consular report says:

In studying the history of these commercial institutions, two striking features appear, first, the fast and uninterrupted growth of the institutions of middle and lower type, most rapid since 1899-though 1895 already indicated the coming ascendancy and second, the circumstance that the chief item in the budget is formed by the fees of the students. These two factors are full of significance, as they point to the awakening and increasing activity of the Russian merchants.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

The following information in regard to agricultural education in Russia is derived from the official reports of the department of agriculture, covering the period 1902-1912, inclusive:1

Up to last year statistics in connection with agricultural schools were only published at lengthy intervals. Now, however, in view of the steady increase in the number of such schools and the importance of the sums expended upon them by the Governe ment and the zemstvos county authorities, the interest displayed by the patie in the results attained has grown to such an extent that from now on the Govenme, & proposes to issue annual statemente as to the activities of the whoor,

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In 1899 the number of schools was 133. During the year ending January 1, 1912, 47 new educational institutions began work and 5 were closed. The latter were all private institutions in receipt of subsidies from the treasury.

As regards the cost of the schools, the final total of grants made during 1911 for meeting the requirements of 255 educational institutions was 5,295,741 rubles (United States equivalent, $2,727,307); of this total the treasury grants amounted to 2,721,661 rubles ($1,401,656), and allotments from the zemstvos and other public bodies to 1,128,186 rubles ($581,016). The fees paid by students, and income from sale of products of the schools, together with other special receipts, amounted to 1,446,894 rubles ($745,150). In 1899 the total expenditure from all sources on agricultural education was 2,076,499 rubles ($1,069,397). Of the grants made by the treasury during the year ending January 1, 1912, 1,395,310 rubles ($718,585) went to 47 Government institutions, and the balance of 1,326,351 rubles ($683,071) represents subsidies to 191 schools belonging to zemstvos, social bodies, and private persons.

Some idea of the way in which the money requirements of the agricultural schools are growing may be obtained from an examination of the following figures:

From this it will be seen that the treasury during the year 1911 increased its participation in the support of agricultural schools to the extent of 41 per cent.

Since 1910 the department of agriculture has begun to assist zemstvos in supporting low-grade schools by means of simultaneous grants for their equipment.

The expenses in connection with the running of agricultural schools during 1911 amounted to 3,982,818 rubles (United States equivalent, $2,051,151). Unfortunately, no accurate comparison of expenses can be made with previous years, owing to lack of statistics. The following figures, however, will be of interest as showing the aver age growth of expenses in connection with the various categories of agricultural schools: Average current expenses of agricultural schools.

The increases noticeable in the expenses are attributable to the application of the resolution as to agricultural education imperially confirmed on May 26, 1904. This resolution provided for a substantial increase in the remuneration of the personnel, attaining in some cases as much as 100 per cent.

The cost of the personnel of the schools and the expenses in connection with teaching for which purpose the treasury grants are generally made-represent about onehalf of the total expenses of the schools.