The system of public education in Hungary is organized on lines similar to those of Austria. Both derived their original impulse from the "Ratio educationis" issued by the Empress Maria Theresa, but in Hungary a new direction, modern and national, was given to the system by the efforts of Baron Joseph Eötvös, the first Hungarian minister of instruction, who was brought into prominence by the revolutionary events of 1848. In his second term as minister, 1867-1870, Baron Eötvös succeeded in carrying the elementary education act of 1868, which, with subsequent amending acts, constitutes the organic law of elementary education in force at the present time. The original law (1868) made school attendance obligatory for children from 6 to 12 years of age, and attendance at continuation schools compulsory for the ages 12 to 15. Interest in industrial pursuits was promoted by the practical subjects which were included in the original programs for elementary schools. Chief among these are the elements of natural science, with special regard to the occupations of the majority of the parents in the respective districts, practical gardening, drawing, and needlework. The tendencies cultivated in the elementary day schools are developed in the continuation schools, which at first simply continued or reviewed the subjects of the elementary schools. Since 1902 provision has been made for continuation schools having a technical character.

As regards popular education, therefore, Hungary anticipated the most important recent movements.

The secondary schools of Hungary are classified like those of Austria, as Gymnasia and Realgymnasia. Separate schools and a distinctive type of education for girls mark the system; but in 1895, by the authorization of Minister Wlasseis, young women were admitted to the university, and opportunities for preparation were afforded them by the establishment of a special classical course in the Budapest high school for girls. This school has since been transformed into a girls' classical school, and other similar schools have been established; hence the education of girls now proceeds along two lines-one marked

by modern languages and domestic science; the other assimilated to the classical schools for boys.

Statistical summary of primary and secondary schools, 1910-11.

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Hungary is abundantly supplied with industrial, technical, and commercial schools and institutions for agriculture. The total number of pupils under instruction in these various classes of institutions in 1911 was 102,000. The law requires the establishment of apprentice schools in all communities in which there are 50 apprentices working in shops or factories; the masters of trade are obliged to provide for the attendance of their apprentices at these schools.

The technical high school at Budapest, which is on the university plane, had 160 professors and 1,676 students in 1911-12.

PROTECTION OF ABANDONED CHILDREN."

Hungary is particularly noted for its system of infant protection, which dates from the efforts of the Countess Teresa Brunswick, who established the first infant home at Buda in 1829. She was supported in this effort by Count Szechenyi, the leader of the reform movement which spread over Hungary in the early years of the nineteenth century, and among its agencies developed an association for promoting the well being of children, which included among its members Louis Kossuth and many of his associates. Through the efforts of this association a training college was established to prepare directresses of infant homes; and in 1848, when the war of independence broke out, 89 homes were in operation. The work was crippled and the movement checked by the war, and little more was attempted in the same direction until the founding of a Froebelian association in 1869. This association and the Hungarian infant protective association have

ever since been centers of effort in behalf of young children. The State intervened actively in this work as early as 1891, at which time a law regulating this service was adopted. But it was not until 1901 that complete organization was given to the State system of infant protection. The special features of this system are as follows: Provision for the establishment of infant homes by the State and by local authorities; the requirement of special training for the teachers and for other persons on the staff of the homes; the obligation placed upon parents to send their children between the ages of 3 and 6 who can not be properly cared for at home to the infant homes. For neglect of this duty the penalty of a fine ranging from 20 filler to 1 crown (5 to 20 cents) is imposed.

Provision for the care of abandoned children is made under some circumstances in public homes provided by the State; under other conditions the children are placed in families carefully selected with regard to their mode of living and the communities in which they live. The State maintains constant and careful supervision over all such children by means of a corps of specially trained inspectors. At the present time it is estimated that 55,000 children in different families, selected in 350 communes, are under the surveillance of the State. These children are furnished with clothing at public expense, no distinction being made in this respect between them and other children in the same circle of life. About 85 per cent of all the wards of the State are committed to private families; the remainder are placed in the public homes. The latter are distinguished for their fine buildings, admirably planned and thoroughly equipped for the instruction and entertainment of children. The training is marked by sympathetic adaptation to childhood and by the use of songs, stories, and pictures of national life which inspire love of Hungary.

Ample provision is also made for the care and training of the blind, the deaf, and the dumb, and for children who are mentally defective. The education of these unfortunates is under the supervision of the State in the same manner as that of normal children in the public schools.

The demand for State control of the service arose from the inadequacy of private and communal action and was based upon the principles advocated by Herbert Spencer, namely, that every neglected child has a right to the protection of the State, and that the welfare of the State demands such action. Wide scope was given to the expression "abandoned child." It was declared that every child deprived of sufficient food and of education, either because of poverty or environment or other causes, is practically abandoned. Under this conception the protection of the State was to be extended to infants, to children of school age, and to adolescent youths between the ages of 14 and 16.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.

CONTENTS.-Introduction-Recent events in Spain: Public-school education in Madrid; university movements-Portugal-Italy: Movements pertaining to elementary education; illiteracy; education of emigrants; welfare activities; promotion of agriculture; secondary and higher education-The Kingdoms of southeastern Europe: Disastrous effects of the B lkan war; modern schools in the Turkish Empire.

The States of southern Europe bordering on the Mediterranean are all marked by a high degree of illiteracy among the common people, and all have been recently the scene of conflicts, political or military, that have prevented the progress of education. During the present year, however, two of these States, Spain and Italy, have been free from disturbance and able to concentrate their energies upon matters of internal development, with the result that popular education has received new impulse, while the higher institutions have increased their resources and their activities.

RECENT EVENTS IN SPAIN.

The present year has given proof that the movement for the reform of primary education in Spain is firmly established in the Government policy. The movement began in 1900 by the creation of a ministry of education, which up to that time had been included within the ministry of fomento (agriculture, public works, etc.). In 1902 the State assumed the payment of teachers' salaries and the provision of school buildings in municipalities neglecting this duty. As a result of the events of 1909, which brought to a crisis the struggle between the clericals and the advocates of educational reform, the law of June 23, 1909, was passed, extending the authority of the State in regard to the appointment of teachers, the conduct of schools, etc. The most important measure in the interests of primary education was the royal decree of January 1, 1911, creating the office of "general direction" of primary education in the ministry. The same year the budget for public instruction was increased by 6,000,000 pesetas ($1,158,000). Of this increase a large proportion was assigned for primary education, and for the employment of additional inspectors, increasing teachers' salaries, and improving school buildings. The royal decree sanctioning the budget for 1911 provided that the lowest salaries.

for teachers, namely, 500 or 625 pesetas, should be raised to 1,000 pesetas as far as possible.

For the improvement of teachers already in the service, short courses of training have been instituted; and the teachers' certificate, hitherto conferred by the Government upon candidates who had never attended a normal school, but who passed a very simple examination, has been suppressed.

The budget estimates for 1914 submitted by the Director General show the intention of continuing the efforts at reform in accordance with a general plan which includes increase of the administrative force; provision for sending students of the normal schools upon tours of observation for the improvement of their pedagogic, scientific, and artistic knowledge; the increase of salaries; and Government aid for the construction of school buildings.1

Controversy has long prevailed over the matter of obligatory teaching of the catechism in the schools, and it was announced during the year that a royal decree had been drawn up making this study optional. Eventually, however, the decree was withdrawn, and the subject is still compulsory.

The appointment of Dr. Altamira, the eminent savant, to the position of Director General of Primary Education has excited general confidence in the reform measures on account of the high esteem in which he is held by all parties. The disposition of the Government to avoid contest with the ecclesiastical authorities in regard to education is indicated by the decree respecting religious instruction in the schools. This decree provides that the catechism and sacred history shall be continued as obligatory subjects in the program of the public schools. But children of non-Catholic parents are exempt from attendance upon this instruction, at the written request of their parents.

In a recent address Dr. Altamira sums up the situation with regard to primary education as follows:

The development of primary education depends upon three principal factors: First, financial resources; second, an efficient teaching corps; third, the absolute separation of this work from all political influence.

The appropriation for primary education in the budget for 1911 amounted to 32,012,596 pesetas ($6,184,221.028). This sum was 6,000,000 pesetas in excess of the appropriation for the preceding year, but the budget for 1913 has carried a further increase of 6,000,000 pesetas, which amounts to an advance of 12,000,000 pesetas in three years.

The general direction of primary education, which was established in January, 1911, has achieved a complete separation of the administration of primary schools from political influences. This central direction has organized courses for the preparation and improvement of teachers, and has succeeded in securing for them an increase of their salaries and a uniform classification. It has brought about the grading of a great

1See Lesca, Charles. Les réformes de l'enseignement primaire en Espagne. In Revue internationale de l'enseignement, 33me année, No. 10 (Oct. 15), 1913, pp. 256-265.