ship. In its meetings teachers from elementary schools, secondary schools, seminars, etc., docents from the universities, administrative officers, and others in any way interested in education come together and begin to realize that "all educators have common problems to solve and that their common efforts may have common aims and purposes." This organization considers as its problems: The whole question of the "Arbeitsschule"; mental development and the school; types of schools; education for teachers; sex difference and its significance for education; relation of home and school. The league has held three congresses: Dresden, 1911; Munich, 1912; and Breslau, 1913. The 1913 meeting was devoted to a thorough and illuminating discussion of the problem of coeducation and coinstruction.

The effort of schoolmen to get together in educational problems with those outside of school work is noticeable in another recent conference of considerable importance. On February 8, 1913, a conference on vocational guidance was held at Charlottenburg, participated in by Government authorities, representatives of trade and industry, of labor, and of the schools. Two speakers supplied by the "Central Bureau of Public Welfare" (Zentralstelle für Volkswohlfahrt) outlined respectively the need of vocational guidance and the way in which the work should be organized. The following is a summary of the resolutions adopted at the close of the conference:

1. Vocational counseling and placement are urgently recommended for publicschool pupils in the interest of the pupils themselves, as well as for economic reasons. The object of vocational guidance is the direction of young people into vocations in accordance with individual preference and ability considered in their relation to the service of the common welfare. The establishment of vocation bureaus is considered necessary also for higher positions and for feminine occupations.

2. Of special importance for the vocational guidance and placement of publicschool children is the cooperation of (a) the school, (b) the school physician, (c) labor exchanges, (d) boards of trade, and (e) child-welfare organizations. To facilitate the common purpose, committees should be formed and should be aided by expert and trained counselors. The trade associations and women's organizations are particularly adapted for maintaining vocation bureaus.

3. This conference requests all participating bureaus to take up vigorously the task of furthering vocational guidance and placement. This conference will select a committee which shall be authorized to advance the movement in every possible way, to form a center for uniting all efforts in this direction, and to make possible an interchange of experiences. This committee shall be composed of representatives of the central teachers' association, the continuation school societies, the associations of school physicians, the labor association, the trade chambers, industrial societies, chambers of commerce, employers' organizations, together with individual vocational counselors, representatives of vocation bureaus, and other individuals whose cooperation may seem advisable upon further consideration.

An idea of the multiplicity of teachers' associations in Germany may be obtained from a glance at the following partial list of such associations for the city of Berlin alone: The Berlin teachers' society,

Society for the study of local geography, Teachers' science society, Society for school hygiene, Drawing society, Manual training association, Foreign language society, League of auxiliary schools, the Diesterweg foundation, Teachers of the deaf, Society for the improvement of language, Committee of censorship for children's books, Association of Catholic teachers of Berlin, Motion-picture committee for Berlin schools, Berlin association for vacation colonies, Central association for student walking trips, Berlin teachers' singing society, Association for the education and care of backward children. The tendency to organize societies and hold meetings is evidenced by the following conferences, conventions, and congresses held recently: Education for temperance, auxiliary schools, juvenile literature, motion pictures in education (the so-called "Kinokongress"), Protestant schools, school hygiene, tuberculosis among school children, scientific pedagogy, and education for citizenship.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

CONTENTS.-Austria-The system of general education; statistics; industrial and technical education. Hungary-Characteristics of the system of general education; statistics; industrial and technical education: protection of "abandoned children."

AUSTRIA.

THE SYSTEM OF GENERAL EDUCATION.

The organization of schools, in Austria is similar to that of Germany. Elementary education is given in Volksschulen and higher elementary or Bürgerschulen. Many of the former are ungraded, especially in the country, while those in the towns or cities have from two to eight classes. School attendance is compulsory for all children, the limits of compulsion in the majority of the Provinces being from 6 to 14 years of age. In Istria, Galicia, and Dalmatia, the limits are 6 to 12. Children may obtain a certificate when they have satisfactorily completed the required course of elementary studies, but children employed in large factories must continue their education at special schools, with the aid of their employers.

The expenditures for elementary education fall chiefly upon the communes. The teachers are, as a rule, fully prepared for their calling, and the schools are well supplied with material aids to instruction. On account of the different races comprised in the Empire, the language of instruction is a subject of much discussion, and at times decided efforts have been made to force the use of the German language upon all schools. These efforts have, however, failed, and the language varies in schools, that being generally employed which is the language of the majority of the pupils in the respective school. In many schools more than one language is used by the teacher.

The secondary schools comprise three classes: Gymnasia or classical schools, having an eight years' course; Realschulen, having a course of seven years, modern languages replacing Latin and Greek; and Realgymnasia. The last have a four years' course, which may include Latin and Greek.

The secondary schools are either public (established by State or Province) or private, but all are subject to Government supervision,

follow the same programs, and prepare for the same examinations. Separate secondary schools are maintained for girls. State schools and those provided by the cities are noted for their fine buildings and liberal equipments. The following tables summarize the latest official statistics pertaining to the different classes of schools and higher institutions.

Year.

Elementary schools. 1

Ele

mentary Teachers. Pupils. schools.

The number of private schools included in the above table is comparatively few, in 1910 only 1,145.

The divisions of the elementary schools by language instruction were as follows: German language, 9,120; Czech language, 5,984; other Slav dialects, 7,153; Italian, 737; Roumanian, 173; Magyar, 5; other languages, 4. In 274 schools more than one language was

The above table includes the gymnasia for girls; in 1912-13 these numbered 32, with 4,797 pupils. There were also 68 "lyceums" for girls, with 11,151 pupils.

The number of university students, namely, 30,591, included 2,624 women students, equivalent to 8.5 per cent of the total.

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Austria is distinguished by its elaborate provision for industrial and technical education. This work is managed independently of the system of general education, and the control of the various orders of training is centralized in different ministries.

Industrial schools are under the ministry of public works, which acts in counsel with the departments of education and comAt the head of this system are nine central institutions, all but one situated at Vienna; the exception is the art-trade school at Prague. Every trade and mechanical occupation is represented in the remaining schools, which include polytechnic or group schools, schools for single trades, for single branches of industry, industrial continuation schools, and schools for the industrial callings open to

women.

The polytechnic, trade, and industrial art schools of Austria are regarded as models for other countries. The industrial continuation schools, on the contrary, are less satisfactory. Their defects are attributed mainly to the employment of the ordinary elementary teachers, who naturally do not understand the aims and needs of schools of this order, and to the difficulty of arranging for day attendance. The ministry of public works has already taken measures to effect a change in these two conditions; hence it may be said that the industrial continuation schools are at a transition stage.

The agricultural technical schools are under the ministry of agriculture. They are all subject to State supervision and are maintained by State funds.

According to official statistics for 1909-10, there were altogether 5,721 technical and industrial schools below the grade of the technical high schools, with 381,702 students.

The close relation between trade schools and local industries in Austria may be illustrated by the schools for the gold and silver smiths trade, which are maintained in Vienna, which is famous for its trade in ornaments of precious metals and stones. In this city there are four schools for the gold and silver smiths trade-three municipal and the fourth maintained by the jewelers' guild. The branches of study include trade, commercial matters, and work in silver and gold; in the guild school is added the study of gems, etching, and engraving. The school year lasts nine months, and attendance is obligatory for all who anticipate entering into this trade. The art of making ornaments of precious metals and stones is not taught in the schools, but must be learned during an apprenticeship which lasts from three to four years; but attendance upon one of the schools mentioned above is obligatory during the apprenticeship period.

17726°-ED 1913-VOL 1-53