superficial and the interest was indifferent. There were only a few courses and these mostly in commercial and language subjects, and they were very poorly attended; there were only a handful of poorly paid teachers; little or no public respect was accorded them, and no encouragement was received from educators; but few students attended, and those were nearly all in the elementery subjects; it was regarded only as a side issue and not a regular part of the association work; it had no special provisions in buildings or equipment and no tuition receipts.

Now there are over 130 courses, industrial, trade, and vocational, as well as commercial and language; the attendance is more regular than that of public evening schools; there is increasingly favorable public sentiment and more cooperation from educators; nearly six times as many regular students attend, including business men and college graduates, in addition to those in the three R's; the work is regarded as a vital part of association work, instead of as a side issue; many large and specially designed buildings provide accommodations and equipment; and receipts from tuition fees alone provide 65 per cent of the expenses of a work that is 15 times as large as 19 years ago.

8. In foreign lands.-The relation of the international committee to the various association interests in many foreign nations, as China, Japan, India, South America, Africa, Turkey, etc., is such that more and more these nations are seeking and using men, methods, and policies from the North American associations. While the educational work in such foreign associations is now comparatively small, with appropriate leadership and support it will become one of the strongest elements in the development of efficient Christian manhood and boyhood in those nations. There are already more than a thousand teachers giving instruction to over 15,000 students in associations in foreign lands.

CHAPTER XXVII.

MOTION PICTURES AS AN AID TO EDUCATION.

By ALFRED H. SAUNDERS,

Editor of " Moving Picture News," New York City.

CONTENTS.-Development of motion pictures-Cinematography in education-Obstacles to the use of films in schools-Homemade films are entirely practicable-Some of the advocates of motion pictures-Motion picturecs in color-Conclusion.

DEVELOPMENT OF MOTION PICTURES.

The first photograph of the human face in motion was exhibited in a photographer's window in Sloane Street, London, England, in 1889. This crude attempt was made under great difficulties. William Friese Greene, the experimenter, made his own film, emulsionized it, cut it into 20 or 25 foot lengths, and projected it with the same mechanism he had used in his camera for making the negatives. The experiment was largely commented upon in the papers of the time. This was a decided advance upon the zoetrope and Edward Muybridge's experiments with a battery of cameras whose shutters were released by snapping a series of threads as trotting horses passed and broke them.

Simultaneously with Greene in England, Thomas A. Edison was making his experiments in America with the kinetoscope. The American Mutoscope Co. also brought out their machine about the same time. In the kinetoscope the pictures were arranged on long strips of paper which moved rapidly before the eye of the observer who peered through a lens. The mutoscope was also arranged for a single observer, but in it photographs on paper were attached to the edge of a wheel which in revolving flicked the pictures into view as one would flick a pack of cards from the edges. Both these machines were extensively used at fairs and "penny arcades."

It was only when George Eastman perfected the film so well known at the present day, that cinematography made any material advance, for the long film made it possible for the first time to get satisfactory results. Then the Messrs. Lumiere, in Lyon, France, made their machine for projection on the screen. The Messrs. Gaumont followed. Simultaneously Marey and Demeney, of Paris, began their experi

ments, making great improvement in the mechanism of both the camera and the projecting machines. During the next five years makers of cameras and of projectors sprang up everywhere, each vying with the other to do something better than his fellow. From 25-foot lengths the film was extended to 50. Then a method of joining was discovered, which made it possible gradually to increase the length of the negative film to 200, 300, or 400 feet, and the positive to the present-day reel of 1,000 feet.

The popularity of cinematography (the name was coined by the French manufacturers) grew so rapidly that the manufacturers could not supply the demand and the showmen became manufacturers. At the present day, pictures and machines are made in every quarter of the two hemispheres.

At first the pictures were mediocre in quality and ridiculous in treatment. They were almost exclusively devoted to comedy of the "slap-stick" type. The novelty of movement in pictures was so great that the quality of the subjects was overlooked. The public soon tired of such pictures however, and in response to the evident demand, manufacturers in England began to photograph scenery, pleasure resorts, seaside views, fire-brigade drills, and the like. The example was followed in other countries, and a high degree of excellence was attained, especially in France.

The Boer War gave the first real impetus to the industry. Mr. Charles Urban, of London, dispatched to South Africa a staff of photographers, who sent their negatives to England for development; and all over the world scenes of the war were flashed on thousands of Thus originated the "moving-picture bulletin," or animated newspaper. Since then, practically every important event in the world's history has been written on cinematograph film, instructing thousands in a language that can be understood by people of every nationality.

screens.

During the period of progress, it was often difficult to find suitable subjects, and anything the manufacturers chose to foist upon the public was exhibited by the showmen. Many of the subjects were French, and they may or may not have satisfied French audiences; but when they were imported to America and England some of them proved to be entirely too broad for the more particular tastes of those countries.

Gradually the practice arose of forming stock companies to act complete plays under the direction of full-fledged stage managers. A new profession grew out of this change, that of scenario writing. At first, the manufacturers exercised little care in the selection of "plays," and apparently took anything that was submitted to them, paying from $5 to $15 for a "script." These were frequently based upon train robberies, hold-ups, burglaries, shootings, murders, elope

ments, and domestic infelicities more or less questionable in tone. These films were made by the thousands, until an outraged public raised a protest, and the authorities of various cities began to censor some of the most flagrant violations of decency. Then pictures of cowboys, "Wild West" stories, made-up Indians, and similar subjects were made to head the list. These are now rapidly dying out, and elaborate and carefully staged pictures, such as biblical, mythological, historical, and classical plays are now given prominence.

During the process of evolution has come the demand of intelligent audiences for a larger number of high-class films. Charles Urban, of London, has been notably successful in meeting this demand. He saw the need and has tried faithfully to supply it. Pathé Freres, Gaumont, and Eclair, of Paris and America, are ably supporting him, and to-day a great number of excellent scientific, artistic, historical, religious, and other films are available for educational purposes.

CINEMATOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION.

A canvass was made a short while ago by a New York daily newspaper of thousands of schools, colleges, and other institutions of learning throughout the United States. It was found that the institutions were nearly unanimous in favor of teaching by cinematography; and the prediction was made by most of them that the day was close at hand when they would all consider the cinematograph projector and film as an indispensable part of their equipment.

It is contended that the eye grasps facts more quickly and retains them for a longer time than the ear. A class instructed by demonstration and illustration is far better equipped than the class depending upon the spoken word alone. It is possible to illustrate with the moving picture almost every subject, from the kindergarten to the university, inclusive, and pictures could easily be made to follow the textbooks.

In preparing scientific films for general use the greatest difficulty is to make them in such a way that they can be easily understood. In the films of history and classical literature there is another and graver danger-that of misrepresenting facts. There have been many such films made which are useless for educational purposes for that reason alone. Many a director has sacrificed truth because he thought the story could be more dramatic or because in some way it suited his purpose better if changed. Imagine the doubt in the minds of school children. In more than one actual instance in the New York schools the question has been asked by pupils whether the moving picture or the textbook was correct. The exhibition of such films should not be allowed. So important is the matter that the board of education in every city or town should have the power to prohibit

the exhibition of them. Whether of art, science, history, or literature, the pictures must be correct in every detail.

Films available for educational purposes are manufactured by sev eral foreign firms, who ship them to this country, and through various agencies endeavor to create a demand for their wares. But the business of distribution is practically in the hands of a few men, who are making greater profit from the amusement side, and little advance has been made in introducing strictly educational films. No manufacturer in this country is enterprising enough to make any quantity of such films. Nevertheless, the films already available cover a large field and are easily procurable from England, France, Germany, and Italy. Those made in America are confined almost entirely to experiments with chemicals and liquid air and a small number on subjects in hygiene. A few made under the supervision of scientists are not available for general use.

The following is a partial list of subjects upon which excellent films may be obtained:

Each of these headings may be more fully amplified. Agriculture includes such subjects as irrigation, works on new farms, clearing the land by donkey engines, blasting tree stumps and rocks with dynamite, sowing wheat, reaping, thrashing, etc., potato culture, cattle ranching, rice culture, growing stalks, transplanting, irrigating, milling; modern methods of mowing and haying; corn and wheat harvesting; sheep ranching, shearing and gathering wool; cider making; culture of tobacco; cotton cultivation; the maple-sugar industry; pine-apple industry; mushroom culture; tea planting, and numerous others.

Aviation and aeronautics show balloon ascensions and panoramic views taken from them of the country beneath. Spencer, Santos Dumont, Phillips, Forman, Wilbur Wright, and practically the whole army of aviators and their flying machines contribute to these subjects. Count Zeppelin's various models of dirigible balloons are also