Taboo." In relation to morality and religion these things have a deep meaning as unfolding moral obligation and religious duty.

In the ninth chapter we have an informing study of Totemism, together with the recital of many interesting facts which come under this term. Totemism consists in a blood covenant between a human kind and an animal species, whereby the animal chosen becomes the sign or token of the tribe. There are also certain vegetable totems to be found. The discussion of this point is very thorough, and our author shows that we have in totemism the result of an attempt on the part of primitive man to establish friendly relations with the powers about him, to whom also he ascribed a personality like his own. Then he observed that as men were organized into families, so animals were grouped into species. Then, as alliances between families or clans were ratified by the blood covenant in such a way that men of diverse clans became blood brothers, so in like manner men sought alliances with objects of nature, especially animals, and in this way totemism arose. This, our author shows, accounts for animal worship, and for the domestication of the animals which were taken as totems, the latter being a survival of totemism.

In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth chapters the line of reasoning suggested by the chapter on totemism is followed out. Here it is shown, not only that animal worship and animal domestication, but other important customs and facts, are explained. It accounts for the animal form of certain gods, and the connection of certain animals with certain gods. It also accounts for the idol, and for animal sacrifice, and for the sacramental meal. Here there is much of interest, though we would hesitate to concur in all the details expressed by our author.

An important chapter is the thirteenth, which takes up in a fresh way the very much discussed topic of Fetichism, and with this we may couple the fourteenth and fifteenth chapters, the former of which deals with Family Gods and Guardian Spirits, and the latter with Ancestor Worship. Fetichism resulted from an illicit way by which the individual sought to commend himself to supernatural protection, and Family Gods were the product of a licit mode of doing the same thing. In the former case, the individual addressed himself to one of the supernatural powers which had, by means of the totem, no friendly relations with his tribe, or any other, and which was resented in such a way as to cause harm by way of penalty. Thus Fetichisın arose, and implied already a religious basis. In the latter case, the individual might, with the approval of the community, and by the service of the priest, place himself under the immediate protection of one of the gods of the communitty. Thus originated family gods and special guardian spirits, and in this way the true explanation of ancestor worship is to be found. The worship of ancestors grew out of, and was modelled according to, the public worship of the tribe or community. Ancestorism is subsequent to totemism, and both imply the existence of religious sentiment in its simple terms.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth chapters, Tree and Plant Worship, and Nature Worship are considered in order. As already hinted, certain species of trees might be taken for totems, as well as animal species. This led to

the domestication of plants; and, further, it also resulted in the sacrificial meal, as in the case of animals came the sacrifice. Bread and wine were used in this meal. Hence plants and trees, as well as animals, came to be held in religious regard, and thus Nature Worship came into practice.

In the eighteenth chapter, the somewhat peculiar topic of Syncretism and Polytheism is taken up; and a quite original explanation of polytheism is given in this chapter. Agriculture and the rearing of cattle led early men to seek a settled mode of life, and this resulted in a political union of several tribes or clans. From this flowed a fusion of their religious ideas and modes of worship. This ran in two directions. If the gods of two tribes were alike, they might gradually come to be regarded as one. This was syncretism, which tended, by fusion, to reduce the number of deities. If, on the other hand, the gods were unlike and remained separate after the fusion of several clans took place, the result was polytheism. This is ingenious, but we doubt if it is adequate to explain all polytheism, as, for example, that of India. There, and in Egypt, too, polytheism seems rather to have been the result of degeneration from monotheism, through pantheism. When the idea of personality faded away, monotheism became pantheism; and when the oneness of pantheism permeated with the divine was broken up into fragments, each fragment came to be regarded as a part of deity, and held to be divine. In this way polytheism, and perhaps nature worship, in the orient, can be more adequately explained.

In chapter nineteen, Mythology, and in chapter twenty, Priesthood, are discussed. The myth is an attempt, on the part of primitive man, to explain the modifications in tribal worship which resulted from syncretism and polytheism. A strong case is made out for the view that religion is not the product of Mythology. Rather the reverse is true. The discussion of Priesthood is brief but satisfactory, and the view is well established that the priests did not make religion nor the myths, bnt that religion really made both. Our author is exceedingly satisfactory at this point.

The Next Life, and Transmigration form the subjects of the twenty-first and twenty-second chapters. Our author here argues that the next life is sometimes regarded as a continuation of this life; and sometimes it is held regarding it that a man at death assumed the form of his totem. The former resulted in simple belief in immortality, which our author regards as a native instinct of man. The latter produced the idea and belief of transmigration. In the twenty-third and twenty-fourth chapters, the Mysteries, and especially the Eleusinian Mysteries among the Greeks are explained. Transmigra tion was not satisfactory to primitive man, so that about the sixth century B. C., a belief spread abroad, which our author asserts, was to the effect that future happiness depended on communion with some deity. In the present life this communion was effected by means of a sacrament of some kind. This resulted in the Mysteries; and this communion was also continued by the same means after death. In Greece the Elusinia are prominent in this connection. In the two closing chapters the origin of Monotheism, and the development of the belief in one God are discussed in an able and generally satisfactory way. Monotheism is not a natural development from polytheism. It is

primitive and original, and the result, in part, of man's innate capacity, and, in part, of God's personal revelation of himself, in the soul or personal spirit of man. This point is elaborated in a careful and thorough manner, and in such a way as to leave the way open in the field of revealed religion for all the revelations which are set forth iu the Holy Scriptures, and by the incarnation of Christ. But we cannot enlarge, though we would like to.

We have been at some pains to exhibit the contents of this able and generally satisfactory book, partly to show the reader the thorough work that is now being done in this field, and partly to indicate the lines of defence of the sound theistic and Christian positions which it marks out. More and more the consensus of scholars is coming round to the positions, that man is an inherently personal, spiritual, religious being; that God is the infinite personal spirit; and that he makes himself known in the spirit of man, as well as by outward revelation. The result is that a solid ground is laid for the belief in a primitive monotheism and a primæval revelation; and that the philosophy of the non-biblical religions is to be found in the law of degeneration (the product of sin), which has been constantly in operation. Louisvile, Ky. FRANCIS R. BEATTIE.

Two NEW TRANSLATIONs of the NEW TESTAMENT. THE EMPHasized New TESTAMENT. A new Translation, designed to set forth the exact meaning, the proper terminology, and the graphic style of the sacred original; arranged to show at a glance, Narrative, Speech, Parallelism, and Logical Analysis; and emphasized throughout after the Idioms of the Greek Tongue. With select References and an Appendix of Notes. By Joseph Bryant Rotherham. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1897. Large 8vo. Pp. 274. Buckram, $2.00.

'H KAINH AIA@HKH: THE NEW DISPENSATION. The New Tesment translated from the Greek. By Robert D. Weekes. New York and London: Funk & Wagnalls Company. 1897. 8vo. Pp. VIII., 525. We have here two, in many respects, valuable contributions to the literature of the New Testament. Coming at just this time they are all the more interesting because of the movement by the American revisers to publish their own revision of the New Testament. Ere long we will have three versions of the Bible competing for supremacy in the Church and among Bible students. This is not to be deprecated, however, for people are too prone to think that one version or another is authoritative, and to accept it as verbatim et literatim et punctuatim the Word of God. But under present circumstances many will be led and some will be forced to investigate the principles of translation adopted by Committees and by individuals such as the two now before us, and decide for themselves which is best. They will be forced to recognize more fully their personal responsibility for adopting one rendering rather than another, instead of blindly following a chosen authority. While men are more or less gregarious in everything, in nothing do they seem so prone to traditionalism as in matters of religious faith. Better study of and greater familiarity with the Scriptures will also result.

Although we shall have some strictures to make on these two latest versions, we wish that they might have a very wide circulation. We cannot suggest a more profitable course of study to any one than to take these two versions and go carefully, critically, and systematically through the entire New Testament, comparing them with each other and with the Common and the Revised versions, and, where one can spell out the Greek, with the Greek text also, using the text of Westcott and Hort by preference.

I. We will first describe these two versions. They are both, in a sense, a protest against the imperfections of the recent Revision as well as of the Old version, which has held sway for 287 years. They have the common purpose of trying to enable us better to understand the revealed Word. They have no distinctly sectarian purpose, as is the case with many versions that have been made, though we shall subsequently have to qualify this statement with respect to one. They have both been made from the text of Westcott and Hort in the main, which makes comparison less difficult. They both subordinate the old and unfortunate chapter and verse divisions to the logical analysis and arrangement. The use of italics for supplied words is sensibly discarded by both. This they have in common, but they differ widely in other respects.

Mr. Rotherham's version appears in the third edition, the first having been issued in 1872, and the second in 1878. But this is an entirely new translation from a different text, with various modifications. The text of Westcott and Hort is adopted throughout, though alternative renderings are given at times. Marginal notes and references are given-not numerous, but judicious and useful. By breaking up the text, using capitals, and drawing in the lines, the author's idea of the logical connection of clauses is indicated. Quotations and adaptations from the Old Testament are printed in italics. Then the author's ideas of variations in emphasis are indicated by the use of double parallels, parallels, enclosing angles, and accents, the force of emphasis diminishing in that order. For example: Mt., 13: 45, 46, he prints:

"45 || Again || the Kingdom of the heavens is | like | unto | a merchant, seeking beautiful' pearls |,-16and < finding one' very' precious' pearl > departing, he at once sold all things, whatsoever he had, and bought it."

This device seems not to be altogether happy. A lady who was asked to read a chapter in the book carefully and give her impression, said that it bothered her. We think this is the natural tendency of the device, although it might be obviated by greater familiarity. A half comma is employed for pauses of less strength than is required by a comma. This is good. We have often wished that such a pause was recognized and provided for. He divides the Historical Books into sections or chapters of his own: Matthew, 93; Mark, 75; Luke, 97; John, 30; Acts, 47.

Mr. Weekes has followed Westcott and Hort "in general, but not exclusively." Happily the chapter and verse division has been ignored, the contents of each page according to the old division being indicated at the bottom of the page in parentheses. For other features, we will let the author describe his own work :

"Redundant words have been sometimes omitted, and words obviously implied have been inserted; obsolete and antiquated words and forms of expression, found in the older versions, as well as words whose signification has become changed, have been replaced by others; mistranslations have been corrected; and euphemistic language has been used in some instances. Parenthetic clauses have been so indicated. Punctuation has been carefully revised, alternative renderings and occasional explanations are given in the foot-notes."

Quotations and adaptations from the Old Testament, and particularly emphatic words and passages—the Lord's Prayer, for instance-are indicated by full-face type. The foot-notes, though not numerous, are valuable. The style of the page is altogether that of any modern book, no divisions being employed except for paragraphs. If the chapter and verse divisions had been indicated in the inner margin, the book could be consulted much more readily. While these divisions were made very awkwardly by Cardinal Hugo, or Stephen Langton, and Robert Stephen, still they were made for facility of consultation with a concordance, and are necessary as a time-saver. But the continuity of the text should not be broken by them. They should not interfere with proper paragraphing. The Revised version is better than the Old version, or either of these new ones, in this respect. Paul's Epistles are given in their probable historical order.

II. Criticism. We suppose that neither of these translators had any idea that his version would ever be generally adopted by English Christendom, and so they were not trammeled as the King James translators and the revised translators were. These had definite rules laid down for them. There was reason for this, though we do not admit the correctness of all the rules. The individual translator has an additional advantage in being allowed to follow out consistently his principles without continual interference from others. Multitude of counsellors insures safety, but not always wisdom, perhaps. A single man of depth and breadth of scholarship, niceness of taste, and freedom from sectarian bias ought to give us the best version possiblea version that all might adopt.

When we come to apply what we believe to be correct principles of translation, we find that both of these translations fail in varying degrees

1. Translation is the exact transference of thought or ideas from the idiom of one language into the idiom of another. Of course it becomes the more difficult the wider apart the two languages are in their genius. So-called "literal translations” are renderings, useful in certain cases, but not for the masses, nor even for the critical student, always. The translation is necessarily an interpretation, and he wants the exact shades of thought of the original expressed in his own language. Greek is said to be the most translatable of all languages, and English is probably the best of all modern languages into which to make a translation. Its literature is so extensive, its construction so varied, its vocabulary practically unlimited. The two are, therefore, virtually coterminous, the limits of variation reduced nearly to the vanishing point. The genius is pretty much the same. Mr. Rotherham has failed egregiously here. About half his work may be classed as literal but not idiomatic. There is probably not a page in the book in which there may