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side lines. Thus you may easily find on a map what is the longitude or latitude of any place given, or you may find the point where any town stands or should stand, when the true longitude and latitude of it are given.

Note, In such maps of particular conntries the longitude, is not always reckoned from the first meridian, as Ferro or Teneriff, but oftentimes it is reckoned from the chief city of that kingdom, which is described in the map, as I have intimated before. Observe farther, That though in globes and maps of the whole world the longitude is reckoned from the west toward the east, yet in smaller maps it is often reckoned both ways, as Bristol is 24 degrees of western longitude from London, Amsterdam has near 5 degrees of eastern longitude.

Note also, That when a small country is represented in a large map, the lines of longitude and parallels of latitude are drawn not merely at every 10 degrees, as in the globe, but sometimes at every 5 degrees, and sometimes at every single degree.

Let it be observed also in large maps, that describe any particular country or province, as a single or double crooked waving line signifies a river when it is made strong and black; so a public road is described by a single or a double line drawn from town to town, not quite so curled nor so strong as a river is, but strait or winding as the road itself happens. And where the roads lie through a broad plain or great common without houses or hedges, they are sometimes described by a double row of points.

As villages and smaller towns are described by a little circle or small round o in maps of larger countries, where the cities are represented by the figure of a house or two with a spire or steeple ; so in maps of smaller countries or provinces the little towns and villages are described by the figure of a house or two, and great towns or cities are marked like several buildings put together in prospect, or else the naked plan of those very towns or cities is drawn there and distinguished according to their streets.

I proceed now to consider sea-charts.

As maps are drawn to describe particular countries by land, so a description of coasts or shores, and of the seas for the use of mariners is called a sea-chart, and it differs from a map chiefly in these particulars.

I. A map of the land is full of names and marks describing all the towns, countries, rivers, mountains, &c. but in a sea-chart there are seldom any parts of the land marked or described, besides the coast or shores and the sea ports, the towns or cities that border upon the sea, and the mouths of rivers.

II. In a map the sea is left as an empty space, except where the lines of longitude and latitude, &c. are placed : But in sea charts all the shoals or sands, and shallow waters, are marked

exactly according to their shape, as they have been found to lie in the sea by sounding the depth in every part of them.

III. In sea-charts, the meridians are often drawn iu strait and parallel lines, and the lines of latitude are also strait parallels crossing the meridians at right angles. This is called Mercator's projection; and the points of the compass are frequently repeated and extended through the whole chart in a multitude of crossing lines,* that wheresoever the mariner is upon the sea he may know toward what point of the compass he must steer, or direct his vessel to carry it toward any particular port; and that he may be able to see with one cast of an eye the various bearings of any port, coast, island, cape, &c. toward each other.

IV. The sea is also filled in sea-charts with various numbers or figures which denote the depth of water, and shew how many fathom deep the sea is in those places where the number stands ; these are called soundings.

V. In sea-charts there is not such care taken to place the north parts of the world always directly upright and before the face of the reader; but the coasts and countries are usually described in such a position as may afford the fittest room to bring in the greatest variety of shores and seas within the compass of the same chart, whether the east, or west, or north, be placed directly before the readers. Here let it be noted that as geography taken strictly and properly is a description of land, so a description of water or sea is called hydrography; and as those who describe the land on maps are properly called geographers, so those who draw the sea-charts are often called hydographers. SECT. XII. The political Divisions of the Earth, represented on the Globe.

THUS we have finished the natural divisions of the surface of the earth; we come now to consider how it is divided politically by men who inhabit it. In this sense it is distinguished into four quarters, into empires, kingdoms, states, commonwealths, principalities, dukedoms, provinces, counties, cities, towns, villages, &c.

The earth is first divided into four chief parts or quarters, which are called Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.

Europe is divided from Africa and bounded on the south side by the Mediterranean sea. On its eastern side it is divided from Asia by a line drawn on the east side of Candia or Crete passing up the Egean sea and through the Propontis into the Euxine or Black sea, and from thence through the sea of Zabaique by the river Don or Tanais, and thence through Muscovy, (as some will have it) to the river Oby running into the northern oceau.

* See Marginal Note, Probl. X. Sect. XIX.

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It is also bounded on the west side by the Western or Atlantic

ocean.

Asia is also bounded on the north by the Northern Frozen seas: On the south by the Indian ocean: On the east it includes China and the Oriental islands: But on the north-east its bounds are unknown, for travellers have not yet been able to determine whether those eastern parts of Great Tartary may not be joined to some unknown parts of North America.

Africa is a large Peninsula joining to Asia by a little neck of land at Egypt bounded on the north by the Mediterranean sea: On the west by the Atlantic ocean : On the north east by thre Red sea; and on the south and east by the Southern and Indian

oceans.

America was unknown to the ancients till found out by Christopher Columbus, a little above two hundred years ago. It is called in general the West Indies. It lies almost three thousand miles to the westward from Europe and Africa on the other side of the Atlantic and Ethiopic seas: It is made up of two large continents, divided by a narrow neck of land into two parts; the one is called North America or Mexicana, the other South America or Peruana. Let us treat briefly of each of these in their order.

SECT, XIII.-Of Europe and its several Countries and

Kingdoms.

THE chief countries of which Europe is composed may be distinguished into the northern, the middle, and the southern parts.

I. The northern parts are the British isles, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Muscovy, and Lapland.

The British isles are Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain contains the two kingdoms of England and, Scotland, which were lately united into one. The chief city of England is London, and Edinburgh is the chief in Scotland, as Dublin is in Ireland. Note, That Wales is reckoned a part of England, though they speak a different language.

Denmark is a small kingdom on the north of Germany made up of one peninsula, and several islands in the Baltic sea; its chief city is Copenhagen, which stands in the largest of those

islands.

The kingdom of Norway (which lies all along bordering on the west of Sweden) has its chief town Drontheim; this together with the isle of Iceland far distant in the northern sea is under the government of the king of Denmark.

Sweden is one of the northern kingdoms which almost encompasses the Baltic sea; its chief city is Stockholm. That part of it tha tlies on the east side of the Baltic is called Fin

land, Livonia, &c. and the southern part on the west side next. to Denmark is called Gothland.

All the north-east part of Europe is Russia and Muscovy under the government of the Czar, whose capital city is Moscow. His conquests have lately joined Livonia to his dominion, which before belonged to Sweden, and there he has built the city Petersburgh.

Lapland is a cold savage country that lies on the north of Sweden, and belongs to three princes, viz. the Dane, the Swede, and the Muscovite. Note, That Norway, Laplaud, and Sweden, were once all comprized under the general name of Scandinavia.

II. The middle parts of Europe are France, Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Little Tartary.

France lies just southward of England; its northern coast is washed by the English channel; its western shores by the Atlantic sea; and its southern by the Mediterranean: its chief city is Paris.

Before I proceed to Germany, it it proper to mention a long row of distinct governments which lie on the east of France, and divide it from Germany and Italy. These are the seven United Provinces, the ten Spanish Provinces, the dukedom of Lorrain, the countries of Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont.

The seven United Provinces are called by the name of Holland, because that is the biggest of them. They are a most considerable Commonwealth, and their chief cities are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Leyden, Utrecht, &c.

Southward of this lie the ten Spanish Provinces, or the low countries or Netherlands, which are called by the name of Flanders, because that is the largest of them: They have belonged to the kingdom of Spain for some ages; but they are now under the Emperor of Germany; their chief cities are Brussels, Antwerp, Louvain, Mons, Namur, Ghent, &c.

Lorrain lies to the south of Flanders, and is governed by a Duke Its chief town is Nancy.

Switzerland is the next: It is a free republic divided into thirteen parts commonly called the Swiss Cantons, viz. Zurich, Bern, Basil, Lucern, &c. Their allies are the Grisons, the Valtoline, &c. The Commonwealth of Geneva might also be mentioned here, which is a very small but free sovereignty, and maintains its rights, because none of its neighbours will let the others seize and possess it.

The dukedom of Savoy and Piedmont borders upon the south of Switzerland. and reaches to the Mediterranean sea : its chief city is Turin; its duke is lately made king of Sardinia.

I proceed now to Germany, which stands in the very heart of Europe; it is called an Empire, and its chief city where the emperor dwells is Vienna: But there are in it many lesser governments, such as dukedoms, marquisates, bishoprics, and several free towns or cities that have some dependence upon the emperor, but yet they are little sovereignties within themselves.

The most considerable of these is the dominion of the archduke of Austria, who is king of Bohemia and Hungary, and is generally chosen emperor. The nine electorates are next in honour, which are so called because their governors are electors by whom the emperor of Germany is chosen. Their names or titles are these: 1. The archbishop of Mentz. 2. The arehbishop of Triers or Treves. 3. The archbishop of Cologn. 4. The king of Bohemia. 5. The duke of Bavaria. 6. The duke of Saxony. 7. The marquis of Brandenburgh, now king of Prussia. 8. The prince palatine of the Rhine. 9. The duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg, who is also king of Great Britain. Besides all these there are many small principalities governed by secular or ecclesiastical powers, which are too numerous to be reckoned up here.

Poland is a large kingdom lying to the east of Germany: It comprehends also the large province of Lithuania: The chief cities of this kingdom are Warsaw and Cracow. I might here mention the country of Prussia, which some years past has been dignified with the name of a kingdom: It is situate northward between Germany and Poland. The king resides at Berlin in Brandenburgh.

Hungary is a kingdom which lies just south of Poland, its chief towns are Presburg and Buda: It has been in a great measure under the government of the Turks; but it now belongs to the emperor of Germany.

• Little Tartary, which is also called Crim Tartary, is a small country lying to the east of Poland, and stretching along on the north side of the Euxine or Black Sea.

III. We go on now to the southern parts of Europe; and these are Spain, Italy, and the European dominions of the Turk.

Spain is the most southern kingdom of Europe, a large country; its capital city Madrid stands in the midst of it: On the west side of it lies the kingdom of Portugal bordering all along upon it; it was once a part of Spain, but now is subject to a distinct king: Its chief city is Lisbon.

Italy is a large peninsula in the Mediterranean sea, and contains various governments in it, viz. Mantua, Modena, Parma, Lucca, Genoa, &c. but the most noted and remarkable. are these five, Venice, Milan, Florence or Tuscany, Naples, and

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