complete when they are separated from their kind. Early men had this feeling.

Men must have had from the beginning a certain sympathy for each other, and must have warned each other of danger and given mutual aid in attack and defense. As men became more dominant in the world and the non-humans became of less consequence as enemies, men turned more and more against each other. Out of the long, fierce strife which men have waged among themselves, have developed, on the one hand, the tribal instincts, ideas, prejudices, and hatreds, and, on the other, unity, loyalty, and patriotism.

The desire for praise and the dread of blame are powerful incentives among all savages, as they are still among all higher peoples. The desire for "glory" is strong even among the rudest savages, as is shown by their excessive boasting, the care with which they decorate themselves, and their craving for "trophies," which last are merely the evidences that they are entitled to some sort of distinction.

The savage has only a very slight knowledge of the world in which he lives. He has no railroads to travel on, no telegraphs nor telephones, no newspapers and no books. He knows for the most part what he sees and hears. His world is bounded largely by his horizon. What there may be beyond the mountain chain he does not know. But whoever is over there is his enemy. And the fel

low on the other side of the mountain feels the same way toward the fellow on this side.

"Mountains interposed and made of na-
tions enemies,

Who had else, like kindred drops, been
mingled into one."

-Cowper.

The savage observes a certain rude code of morals to the members of his own tribe, who are for the most part his kinspeople. But all those outside of his tribe are his enemies, and he acts quite differently toward them. Acts which are looked upon as bad when committed by a savage against the members of his own tribe may be regarded as harmless or even commendable when committed on those outside the tribe. Acts are not judged by their natures or results, but as to whether they are performed upon outsiders or upon insiders.

The Balantis (Africa) punish with death a theft committed against a fellow-tribesman, but encourage and reward thieving from other tribes.

The Afridi (Afghanistan) mother prays that her son may be a successful robber-not a robber of her own people but of other peoples-and in order that he may become skilled in crime teaches him to creep stealthily thru a hole in the wall.

In his dealings with the other members of his tribe the savage observes a certain code of morals.

But outsiders are outlaws. They may be attacked, robbed, deceived, murdered, eaten, or enslaved with perfect propriety. The savage is loyal, sympathetic, and truthful toward those belonging to his tribe, to his group or bunch, but is disloyal, untruthful, and unkind to those outside his group.

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"There was no brotherhood recognized by our savage forefathers," says Sir Henry Maine, in speaking of the ancestors of the white peoples, except actual relationship by blood. If a man was not of kin to another, there was nothing between them. He was an enemy to be hated, slain, or despoiled as much as the wild beasts upon which the tribe made war, as belonging, indeed, to the craftiest and cruelest of wild animals. It would scarcely be too strong to assert that the dogs which followed the camp had more in common with it than the tribesmen of a foreign and unrelated tribe."

The feeling of enmity and hatred which a savage feels toward strangers, toward those outside his tribe, seems to be the complement or opposite of the social feelings which the savage has toward the members of his tribe. Sympathy and hate have much the same relation to each other as have pleasure and pain.

The moral excellences of savages consist in the practice of those virtues which are necessary to the preservation of the tribe in a world of strife and war: courage, loyalty, endurance, sympathy,

and general conformity to the rules and usages of the tribe in its social, religious, and political organizations. Those virtues are more or less tribal in their extent. Toward outsiders, hatred, cruelty, intolerance, deception, robbery, and even murder are encouraged and approved. The personal virtues of temperance, prudence, modesty, industry, self-control, cleanliness, and the desire for self-improvement come later in human development. The virtues of humanity, justice, charity, gratitude, humanitarianism, and the desire for progress are also post-tribal in development.

There are savages and near-savages. Human beings representing a considerable range in development and culture are called savages. And many so-called "savages" show a higher grade of character and intelligence than is shown by the instances mentioned in this lesson. But, since men have come from lower animals, there must have been intermediate beings between those lower animal forms and the savages existing today that were even lower and more animal-like than those cited here.

PART IV.

Savage Survivals In Higher Peoples

1. Purpose of this Sub-course.

The first five lessons of this second-year ethics course form a sub-course in themselves. The general purpose of this sub-course is to teach something about our natures and how we happen to have the natures we have something about where our natures came from.

You often hear it said that human nature never changes-that it is the same today as it has always been and that it will always be the same as it is now. This is not true. Human nature has grown to be what it is; and it will continue to change and grow thruout the ages of the future. It did not always exist. It has been formed, like coal, and river valleys, and mountains.

We used to believe that coal had always been in the ground. But we know now that it was nearly all formed in a certain age of the world called the Carboniferous Age. Before this age there was no coal in the ground, or very little. And we know, too, that coal has been formed by the accumulation of decaying vegetable matter, which grew and fell down age after age, and then was covered up by rock deposits; and by being subjected to different degrees of heat and pressure the dif