LOOKING TO THE FUTURE—Chapter 4 United States/Japan This concluding chapter of the joint study on the role and status of women workers in the United States and in Japan sets forth in parallel statements by each country eight areas of mutual concern on the status of women workers. These have emerged as areas in need of continuing attention. The status of women workers in each country has been carefully studied, and the situation in the two countries has been reviewed and discussed. The eight issues, which are described in the following pages, have been agreed upon by both countries as areas where the respective governments should devote concentrated attention during the next decade. We realize that government efforts alone cannot successfully accomplish the objectives set forth and we therefore urge educational institutions, voluntary organizations, employers, and labor unions to join our continuing efforts to improve the status of women in these areas. 1. Broadening Occupational Opportunities United States It is possible in the United States for a qualified woman to enter any occupational field, yet about half of all working women are in just 12 occupations. A major thrust in our efforts to improve the utilization of women in the work force will be to provide a climate in the home, the school, and the marketplace that enables a woman to choose, according to her own talents, from a broad range of occupations. In addition to the expansion of opportunity, the development and extension of special training programs will be needed to equip women to enter nontraditional fields. It is expected that this effort will enhance the economy by making available the full use of women's skills and aptitudes, and that it will improve their career paths, promotional opportunities, and wages. 2. Improving the Counseling, Education, and Training of Women Concerted attention is being given to the adequacy of the counseling of women in regard to the education and training needed to equip them for participation in careers outside the home. Wise counseling demands elimination of the vocational sex stereotyping which has strongly influenced women's educational and vocational choices in the past; it also necessitates a greater awareness by counselors of changing lifetime work patterns. Current government programs to develop a new system of career education for students, beginning in early school years, will be of special importance to women. Other approaches to facilitate wise career choices include efforts, spearheaded by government and women's organizations, to remove sex stereotyping from vocational literature, from textbooks and other educational materials, and from newspapers, magazines, radio, and TV. For women no longer in school, informational centers which include sound career counseling and special training programs will continue to be encouraged. 3. Changing Attitudes Toward Working Women Despite increasing recognition in recent years of the importance to the economy of the contributions of women workers, including those of married women, A great many women look for and find jobs outside the home after a period of absence from the labor force because of family responsibilities. But studies indicate that they frequently accept jobs either at a lower level of skill and responsibility than the ones they held when first leaving school or jobs which offer few promotional opportunities. These women lack confidence and have rusty skills. Moreover, employers' perceptions of the job potential of women reentrants may be far below their actual capabilities. Efforts to improve the level of jobs of women reentrants require special attention to the employment procedures, including testing, by which employers assess the future potential of job applicants. Laws prohibiting age and sex discrimination are helpful in addressing this issue. In addition, continuing attention will be paid to providing counseling, continuing educa tion, and training programs, particularly for those below the college level. 5. Problems of Women With Dual Responsibilities Women more frequently than men need to make special arrangements for meeting their dual responsibilities in the workplace and at home. Difficulties are greatest where working schedules are rigid and arbitrary. The availability, cost, and quality of child care 1. Broadening Occupational Opportunities Japan Along with the economic and social development in recent years, the number of women workers has drastically increased, accounting for one-third of all workers. At the same time there has been a gradual increase in the number and variety of industries and occupations in which women are employed. However, women's occupational opportunities and fields of employment are still relatively few in comparison to those of men; on the whole, women are concentrated in occupations of a simple or complementary nature. On the other hand, women professional and technical workers are mostly those who are employed in occupations traditionally considered women's jobs, such as hospital nurses or day nurses. In order to make better use of women's occupational abilities and also to promote equality between men and women in employment, it is important to increase accessibility of women to skilled jobs in which they are rarely employed, as well as to professional, technical, and managerial occupations hitherto regarded as men's jobs. women's occupational fields. In Japan the conception of the division of labor between men and women is very strong among people who believe that men should work outside the home and women should be devoted to housework and childrearing. Employers are inclined to regard women workers as a temporary and complementary labor force, and on this assumption practice employment management suited to such workers. Moreover, women themselves often regard their work career as temporary, lasting only until the time of their marriage. However, the situation is changing to give more weight to work careers in the whole span of women's lives. It is necessary to strengthen enlightenment and guidance activities in order to awaken more awareness among women themselves and at the same time develop better understanding and recognition of women workers among employers, trade unions, educators, and the general public.▸ 4. Problems of Reentry Into the Work Force In the process of the high growth of the Japanese economy in recent years there has been a drastic rise in 2. Improving the Counseling, Education, employment. Particularly the number of women workers and Training of Women The increased occupational opportunities for women and their longer worklife expectancy have brought to the fore the importance of occupations in the life of a woman. It is therefore necessary for her to give serious thought to the sort of occupational life she desires. At present, however, the importance of the problems relating to the occupational life of women is not fully fecognized in the present system of school education, vocational guidance, and vocational training. It is necessary in the future to help women prepare themselves with better awareness and higher professional knowledge and skills, by providing them opportunities for more adequate counseling, vocational education, and training. has remarkably increased. Among them are many middle-aged and older women, including those who reentered employment after an interruption because of marriage and childbirth. However, in Japan, where the seniority wage system and employment practices based on lifelong employment prevail, reentry is difficult for middle-aged and older people, and in particular, reemployment opportunities for mature women tend to be limited to simple and complementary jobs. They are mostly temporary workers subjected to unfavorable working conditions. Therefore, necessary measures to help middle-aged and older women reentering employment will be the research and development of occupations most favorable to these women and the provision of adequate information services and vocational training to equip them with required knowledge and skills. 3. Changing Attitudes Toward Working 5. Problems of Women With Dual Women Social attitudes toward women's employment are among the important factors affecting the expansion of Responsibilities When a woman worker wants to continue her worklife, an important problem for her will be how to com United States facilities, whether in a center or in a family home, are also major factors in determining whether women with children can hold jobs outside the home. Despite the expansion of child welfare services in recent years, through funding assistance from Federal, State, and local governments as well as private sources, the need for adequate day care continues to increase, and the shortage can only be overcome by the cooperative efforts of all segments of our economy-private groups, businesses, unions, and government at all levels. We hope that current research will facilitate an increase in the number and levels of jobs that can be held on a part-time basis and the development of more flexible work schedules for full-time employees. Court cases are underway to resolve the remaining legal questions about maternity and child care leave. earnings gap. For example, men, on the average, have had more years of worklife experience than women. And even on full-time schedules women work fewer overtime hours per week than men. Furthermore, the occupational and industrial profiles of women workers are of primary importance in determining their lower average earnings level. The greater continuity of women's labor force attachment today may be expected to lift women's earnings, not only because women will receive the higher wages which usually go with increased job seniority but because a longer worklife expectation will encourage women to train and compete for higher level jobs. Current efforts to broaden the occupational distribution of women and the rising career aspirations of women are also expected to make significant contribu. 6. Implementation of Laws Prohibiting tions to raising the earnings level of women. Finally, Sex Discrimination Widespread gains have been made through the passage of legislation prohibiting all forms of sex discrimination in employment, education, and training. The focus now is on strengthening the implementation of these laws. Enforcement agencies alone cannot bring about this strengthening. The spectrum of laws needs to be fully understood by women workers, employers, and unions, and by educators and counselors preparing women for their greater opportunities in the world of work. Coordination of the various enforcement agencies and procedures is underway but needs continued effort if we are to realize the full benefit of the laws enacted. Voluntary agencies play an important role in providing understanding and support for the work of the enforcement agencies. Still needed to give women equal civil status in line with the pending Equal Rights Amendment to the Federal Constitution and similar amendments in States, are changes in the laws of some States to protect women's property rights, give them equal responsibility to serve on juries, and to assure the married woman the right to determine her domicile. continued efforts are scheduled to implement laws 8. Increasing Women's Share of Traditionally most women in government or private agencies have held supportive positions rather than major decisionmaking posts commensurate with their education and ability. Women's perception of their rightful place has been captured in the popular phrase "make policy, not coffee," which appears on buttons and posters where women work in political organizations. Major steps needed, and beginning to be underway, are identification of key elective and appointive offices, gathering of names of women qualified for such positions, and development of strategies and coalitions effective for getting the women elected or appointed. Key elective positions include Senators and Representatives in Congress, State legislators, members of city councils, mayors, some judges, and officers in political parties. Appointed judges, commissioners, and advisory or planning committee members also hold great in7. Reducing the Differentials in Earnings fluence. Policy-level staff positions in government, Between Women and Men business, or universities, and offices in unions, trade associations, and professional organizations are also important decisionmaking targets for women. Japan bine it successfully with her family responsibilities related to housework and childrearing. While the burden of housework has been lessened considerably by the use of electrical appliances, readymade clothes and food, or help provided by husbands and children, child care responsibilities are mostly shouldered by the mothers, who consequently are often obliged to leave their jobs against their will. Therefore, the provision and improvement of child care facilities on one hand and the promotion of a child care leave scheme on the other will be among the most important measures for helping women workers with dual responsibilities at home and at work. Also, it is hoped for the future that the progressive reduction of working hours and the introduction of flexible working time for all workers will certainly benefit women workers trying to harmonize their family responsibilities with their worklives. found in the fact that women are heavily concentrated in low-paying complementary jobs. Therefore, in order to reduce differentials, it is essential to encourage women workers to challenge the fixed ideas about the fields of employment for women and to take jobs really suitable to their own abilities and aptitudes. At the same time, it is no less important to enable women workers to enjoy equal opportunities with men as to hiring, placement, training, promotion, retirement, and other aspects of labor management. In this respect, while the Labor Standards Law prohibits sex-based discrimination concerning wages, in regard to other conditions of work it prohibits discrimination based on nationality, creed, or social origin. It is necessary to abolish the discriminatory employment systems and practices based on sex, because those systems and practices often result in the differentials in earnings. In case women are paid unreasonably less than men for equal work, which is sometimes found 6. Implementation of Laws Prohibiting out, the labor inspector takes necessary measures. Sex Discrimination Under the present legislation, special protection for women workers is provided mainly in the Labor Standards Law and the Working Women's Welfare Law, and the principle of sexual equality is laid down in various laws besides the Constitution. Until recently the necessity of such special protection, including maternity protection, was stressed and for that purpose various measures were implemented. In recent years, however, problems relating to equal opportunity and treatment for both sexes gradually came to be highlighted. Especially since 1975 was designated as International Women's Year, whose theme included elimination of discrimination based on sex, there has been a growing interest in the promotion of equality between men and women in employment and occupations. In the present legislation, however, no special provision is made to insure equal opportunity and treatment for men and women in employment except for wages. In our future study of such provision, an important problem will be how to reconcile it with protective legislation for women workers. 7. Reducing the Differentials in Earnings Between Women and Men The existence of wage differentials between women and men is attributable not only to various factors stemming from the wage system but largely to the difference between the employment fields of women and men. In Japan the main cause for such differentials is 8. Increasing Women's Share of In recent years there has been an increasing number of women active not only in workplaces but also in various other fields of social activity. However, the variety of fields in which women are serving, as well as the number of women in leading positions, is still limited. As a rule, women are placed in complementary positions, and those who hold decisionmaking posts are very few. For instance, in the case of primary school teachers, of whom more than half are women, the number of women principals is very small, comprising only a very small percentage of all women teachers in contrast to the case of men where the proportion of principals is considerable. The same situation prevails in trade unions. Even in some unions where a large majority of the members are women, the leadership is held by men. Likewise in political fields, in spite of the fact that women make up more than half of the voters, the number of women active in politics is still as small as it was 20 years ago; women account for only a small proportion of Parliament members. In view of this situation we must admit that at present decisionmaking rights are almost in the hands of men, even in regard to the matters in which women are profoundly interested. It is hoped that in the future women's social activities will be expanded still more, so that in addition to increased participation there will be more women placed in decisionmaking positions in their respective fields. |