THE ELEMENTS OF BOTANY*

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GREAT need is felt at present for outline lessons in the higher branches of study. Many young people who, for various reasons leave school soon after they have mastered the "Three R's," attempt, later in life, to further educate themselves. It is for such persons that outline lessons are indispensable. The ordinary text-books have indeed almost reached perfection, yet they do not meet the demands of the selfeducating class. The object of this outline is to give, in as few words and in as simple language as possible, the elementary features of Botany, so that a person who is entirely unfamiliar with the science can at once take it up and practice it.

Botanical instruction should begin with Phanerogamous (flowering) plants, and begin with the flower itself. Cryptogamous (flowerless) plants may be studied later on. A typical flower has the following parts: namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. Diagrams are invaluable in the study of the arrangement of the parts or the flower. To illustrate the cross-section of a flower, three circles are drawn, one within another. Suppose the flower to contain five of each of the component parts; namely, five sepals in the calyx, five petals in the corolla, five stamens, and five pistils. Separate the outer circle into five equal parts. Separate the next inner one in the same manner, making the parts alternate with those of the outer circle. Next divide the innermost circle into five equal parts, making them alternate with those of the second and fall opposite to those of the largest circle. Lastly, represent the five pistils in the centre of the smallest circle by placing five dots alternately with its parts.

This done, the names of the parts of the flower, represented by the diagram, should be thoroughly learned, thus: The outer circle, or floral envelope, is the calyx. Its parts are called sepals. The second circle, or envelope, is the corolla. It is composed of petals. The third circle is composed of stamens, the number of which is the same as that of the parts

* See the extensive and elaborate article (illustrated), on Botany by Prof. Balfour, in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. IV, pages 79–162.

in either of the outer circles, or a multiple of that number. The last and innermost circle is composed of pistils. By applying these names to the corresponding parts of the natural flower, and repeatedly pointing them out in flowers with which one comes in contact, they are easily and indelibly stamped upon the memory. No analytical work should be attempted until this is accomplished.

All flowers do not possess all the parts above named. Those, however, which do, are known as complete flowers; those which do not, as incomplete flowers. Again, those which possess stamens and pistils, regardless of the other parts, are perfect; those which possess but one of these two organs, are imperfect flowers. If all parts in the same circle are alike in shape and size, the flower is regular; otherwise it is irregular. When there is an equal number of parts in each circle, the flower is symmetrical; when otherwise arranged it is unsymmetrical.

When the names and terms thus far given are thoroughly learned, the terms polypetalous, monopetalous and apetalous need little or no explanation. These are the three divisions of the exogenous class of Phanerogamous plants. A few words, however, may not be superfluous. The polypetalous division is that in which the flowers possess both floral envelopes; namely, calyx and corolla, the latter being composed of separate petals. In the monopetalous division, the calyx and corolla both are present, but the petals of the corolla are united. In the apetalous division, either the calyx or the corolla is wanting.

Attention may now be given to collection or harborization. Plants should be studied, as much as possible, when in the living state. To be complete, a botanical specimen should have root, stem, leaves and flowers. It is even better to select specimens containing bud, open flower, and fruit or seed-pod. To dry specimens successfully, place them carefully between soft dry papers of several thicknesses and apply as much pressure as possible without crushing the plants. These papers should be changed every day at first; later on, as the plants dry, they may remain several days. The same papers may be dried and used again.

The necessary implements for ana

lytical work are a microscope, a sharp knife, and dissecting needles. The needles can be made by fastening medium-sized sewing needles in holders of wood.

At this point it is absolutely necessary to take up some manual on Botany. This will usually contain a glossary, and an analytical key to the orders of all the plants described. In using the key one will come in contact with new words which can all be found clearly defined in the glossary. The key leads to the orders of plants where its work ends. Under the order will be found the genera, under the genera, the species. The order, genera, and species constitute the botanical name of the plant.

In the analysis of plants, the name should not be the end and aim. The plant should be thoroughly studied. Its most minute parts should be examined, counted and described before the analytical work is begun. As it is impossible to analyze flowers to any advantage without the use of a manual which contains the analytical key and all the orders of plants to which it leads, it would be useless to give the key in connection with this outline. But, supposing the reader to have before him a manual, it will be helpful to trace a flower through the key to its botanical

name.

"Gray's New Lessons and Manual of Botany" is a comprehensive work and is extensively used. According to the key in this book the typical flower will be traced. The common flax is a good typical flower. The following is its analysis, preceded by the descriptive work above recommended. Thus, The flower is complete, i. e., it has all its parts. It is perfect, i. e., it has the essential organs: namely, stamens and pistil. It is regular having all parts in each circle alike in shape and size. It is polypetalous, having disconnected or separate petals. Now the key is used.

We find Series I to be Phanerogamous plants. It is with this series we have to deal. Under Series I is Class I, which is composed of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants. Class I suggests that it is not alone. Hence, before going further we must examine the other class. It consists of monocotyledonous or endogenous plants. The typical flower answers to Class I.

Under Class I come the three divisions, namely, polypetalous, monopetalous, and apetalous. Our flower answers to the first of these, namely, polypetal

ous.

Under polypetalous the following arrangements of stamens is recorded, namely (a) stamens numerous, at least more than ten, and more than twice the number of sepals. (b) Stamens of the same number as sepals and opposite to them. (c) Stamens not more than twice as many as petals, when of just the same number of the petals, then alternate with them. The typical flower has five stamens, which are alternate with the petals, therefore it comes under the third (c) arrangement.

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Under this arrangement of stamens we find another subdivision, namely, I, Calyx free from the ovary, i. ovary wholly superior. II. Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, at least to its lower half. In the typical flower the ovary is wholly superior, therefore it answers to the first of these subdivisions. This subdivision is further divided: I. Ovaries, two or more, and separate. separate. II. Ovaries from two to five, united at the base, separate above. III. Ovaries, or lobes of the ovary, from three to five, with a common style. IV. Ovaries, only one. The typical flower comes under the last (IV). Under Division IV it comes further under its subdivision II; namely, Ovaries compound as shown by the number of cells, placentæ, or stigmas. It contains five pistils and five stigmas. Next the ovary is described, and the ovary of the typical flower answers to the second description; namely, Ovary two to several-celled. Under the description of the ovary are regular and irregular flowers. Following out the regular flower we find stamens more minutely regarded, and our flower falls under the following division, namely, Stamens just as many, or twice as many as petals. Further, it is an herb having perfect and symmetrical flowers. It has twice as many cells to the ovary (divided) as it has sepals.

This lengthy description leads to the order Linaceæ, page 104 in the same book. Having found the order, there is no further need of the key. The next step is to determine the genus. This is easy where there is but one, namely, Linum. The third and last step is to determine the species. In this case

there are four species. They are arranged in two sets, one in which the flowers are yellow, the other in which they are blue. The latter answers our purpose. This leaves no doubt, as there is but one species under this arrangement, that it is the one required. Hence the analysis is completed. Following is the result: Order-Linaceæ. Genus Linum. Species - Usitatissimum. Common Name-Common Flax. When giving the botanical name, the genus and species only are mentioned, thus: The flax in its botanical sense is called Linum usitatissimum. The analysis being completed, the full name, botanical and common, should be entered upon the botany sheet containing the corresponding pressed specimen. regular herbarium paper has in the lower left-hand corner the words, Number, Date, Order, Genus, Species, Common Name, Locality, and Collected by. These are all to be filled in according to the analysis. Rules for fastening specimens to the sheets, and methods of preserving the same, are minutely given in the manual.

The

It will be observed that no mention is made, thus far, in the outline, of leaves, roots, stems, etc. The reason for this is that there is so much to be learned under

each of these headings that a few words added here would not accomplish much towards helping a beginner. It will be better to read the chapter on each subject, as it is exhaustively treated in the manual. Then, too, experience in analytical work will bring out terms concerning these organs, and nothing is more helpful than to search for the meaning of the strange terms just as they are to be made use of. Having worked for some time with Phanerogamous plants the young botanist will have no difficulty in taking up Cryptogamous plants. This series treats of ferns, mosses, seaweeds, fungi, etc.

Besides the usual collection of plants of both series, it is advisable to make a collection of leaves, mount them and record their names. Another interesting engagement is to plant a quantity of seed, take one up each week and describe it. Continue this until seed is produced. This constitutes what is known in Botany as plant history.

Botany in its fulness, is an extensive study, therefore very little can be given in a few pages, yet if followed closely, this outline will prove a starting-point to the work which can be carried on indefinitely. ANNA M. GRIMM.

HE recent celebration of the longest reign in English history suggests a brief enumeration of those which, for the same reason, have been noteworthy in other countries. It has been computed, writes a correspondent of the London "Times," that the ordinary length of an English sovereign's reign is about twenty-three years. Britannic Majesty's rule has far exceeded this average, the English sovereign who came nearest to Queen Victoria in length of reign having been George III., who succeeded his grandfather, George II. on October 25, 1760, and died on January 29, 1820.

Her

From an early period most nations would seem to have prided themselves on the length of their sovereignties, traditionary history oftentimes magnifying these to a fabulous extent, as in the case

of the ancient Chaldean dynasty. And glancing at Persia we find it recorded in the annals of the Pashdadian race how a certain Feridoon reigned 500 years. But, apart from legendary lore, one feature of the Asiatic sovereignties has been their want of permanency, and if some one of the dynasties established in Persia since the time of Alexander endured for a rather lengthened period, the individual sovereigns only too frequently fell by violence.

The early records of China, again, magnify the length of their rulers' reigns, a certain Emperor Hwang-te having, it is said, reigned a century, from B. C. 2697-2597; he was followed by Chwan Hu, who occupied the throne for 78 years, and the latter was succeeded by the Emperor Yaou, who held sway from B. C. 2356-2255. But, coming to a more recent and authentic period, it may

be noted that of 22 dynasties which have governed China, each one has generally done so by rebellion.

The vicissitudes of the Eastern Empire were equally striking, one ruler following another in quick succession. Of the longest reigns may be mentioned that of Theodosius II., which lasted 42 years, from 408-450, the chief event being his victories over the Persians. He was succeeded by his sister Pulcheria-the first reigning female sovereign in the Roman Empire-who shared the throne with Marcian, her nominal husband. The reign of Justinian and his celebrated consort, Theodora, was nearly 39 years, and that of Heraclius 31 years.

The reigns of the Turkish Sultans have been short. Mahomed II., who took Constantinople in 1453, and made of the Turks a European Power, was the seventh sovereign in descent from Othman, the great chief who conquered Prusa and founded a dynasty in 1299. He reigned just 28 years, and was followed by Bajazet II., who deserves to be remembered as the founder of the Turkish navy.

In the year 1520, Solyman the Magnificent, the contemporary of Charles V., Henry VIII., and Francis I., ascended the throne, which he held for 46 years, some of the great exploits of his reign being the reduction of Belgrave, the conquest of Rhodes, and many important victories both in Asia and Europe. And it is noteworthy that Solyman was the only Sultan, from the time of Othman to the present representative of the Royal line, who reigned for a longer period than 40 years. In 1808, after the deposition and murder of Mustapha IV., Mahmud II. succeeded to the throne, which was occupied in 1839 by his son Abdul-Medjid, who retained it till his death in 1861.

Amongst the longest Russian reigns may be mentioned that of Ivan IV. one of the ablest sovereigns — who reigned 51 years, from 1533 to 1584. In spite of his intemperance and cruelty, he was a great patron of the fine arts, introduced printing into Russia, and encouraged religious toleration. Michael Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, reigned 32 years, from 1613-1645, and was succeeded by his son Alexisstyled the father of his country-who held the throne 31 years. Peter the Great reigned 36 years, from 1689-1725,

and was the first of the Tsars who assumed the title of Emperor, his consort Catherine reigning two years after his decease. On the deposition of Ivan VI. in 1740 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, seized the crown, which she held for 21 years, and the deposition and murder of Peter III. raised his consort Catherine II. to the throne, a position which she retained for 34 years, during which period she increased the Russian territories on all sides. In 1825 Nicholas I. succeeded to the throne, his reign extending 30 years to March 2, 1855.

The Crown of Poland seems to have been no enviable possession, for it was the boast of the Polish nobility that they held their kings, and were not holden by them. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lionhearted, was the first King, which title he obtained from Otho III., Emperor of Germany, his reign lasting about 26 years. Bolelas III. reigned 36 years, from 1102-1138, and Boleslas V. about 52 years. Casimir the Great, whose reign was noted for the encouragement given to the arts, and improvements in the law, held the throne for a lengthened period of 37 years; and Sigismund I. reigned for 42 years, from 1506-1548. On the death of Augustus III., in 1763, the influence of Catherine, the Tsarina, carried Stanislaus Poniatowski to the Polish throne, and he was crowned in the following year. But after reigning 31 years he was deposed in 1795, and died at St. Petersburg, a State prisoner in 1798 the last of the Kings of Poland.

In the royal roll of Danish sovereigns we find Gormo the Old, reigning 53 years, and Waldemar II., surnamed the Victorious, from 1202-1241. But it was in the 16th century that Denmark had good reason to be proud of its sovereign, for the brave and clever Christian IV. reigned for 60 years (1588-1648), the defender of the reformed religion. He was succeeded by Frederick III., who changed the Constitution from an elective to an hereditary Monarchy. And coming down to the close of the 17th century Frederick IV. held the Crown 31 years (1699-1730), whereas the present King of Denmark has reigned since 1863.

Turning to Sweden, it was in 1523 that Gustavus Vasa repealed the Union, and ascended the throne, being succeeded after a reign of 37 years by his son Eric,

who in a very brief time was deposed and murdered. And of the 17th century sovereigns, Gustavus II., who ascended the throne in 1611, and was slain at the battle of Lutzen, November 16, 1632, was the most important. In the last century the luckless reign of Frederick of Holstein lasted from 1751-1771, and a pistol shot from Ankerström, fired at a masked ball, ended the 'career of Gustavus III., in 1792 after a reign of 21 years. And, coming down to the present time, Charles XIV. reigned from 1818 to 1844, and the present King of Sweden has reigned 25 years.

The roll of the sovereigns of France affords several notable instances of long reigns. Henry I. held the throne 29 years, and Louis the Young, whose divorced wife married Henry II. of England, reigned 43 years, being succeeded by Philip Augustus, whose reign extended to the same length. Louis IX. was king 44 years, and Charles VI., who died a maniac, ascended the throne in 1380 and died in 1422. Of the House of Bourbon, Louis XIII. reigned 33 years, Louis XIV. the long span of 72 years, and Louis XV. 59 years; his grandson, Louis XVI., within 20 years from his coronation, suffered a violent death.

The annals of the German Empire, although they record a long and varied list of rulers, cannot boast of any exceptionally lengthened reigns. Frederick I. reigned 38 years, from 1152-1190, and Frederick the Pacific 53 years; while Charles V., after six-and-thirty years of rule, laid down his sceptre and retired to a monastery among the Spanish mountains. Leopold I. held the throne for 47 years, and Frederick William, known as the "Great Elector," for 48 years, which was two years longer than Frederick the Great reigned. It was on August 11, 1804, that Francis II., resigning the empire of Germany, became Hereditary Emperor of Austria, reigning 31 years, and being succeeded in 1835 by his son Ferdinand who, in 1848, abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, who up to the present time has held the throne 49 years. The succession of the Hungarian kings from the time of Stephen to that of Ferdinand I., who became Emperor of Germany, comprised amongst the longest reigns that of Stephen, who reigned 41 years. It was this sovereign who established the Roman Catholic re

ligion, and received from the Pope the title of apostolic king, still borne by the Emperor of Austria, as King of Hungary. Louis the Great, who was elected King of Poland in 1370, sat on the throne for 40 years; and Sigismund alone on the death of Mary ruled 45 years.

Bohemia was governed by Dukes till Ottocar assumed the title of King in 1198, reigning 32 years. In 1310, John of Luxembourg, who was killed at the battle of Crecy, ascended the throne, which he held 36 years; and the reign of Ladislas VI. lasted 45 years, from 1471-1516, the country in 1526 being united to Austria under Ferdinand I. Bavaria was originally governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs, and amongst those who could boast of the longest reigns were Louis, who ruled 48 years, from 11831231; Louis III., 53 years (1294-1347); William I., 42 years; and Maximilian the Great - the first Elector of Bavaria — 55 years (1596-1651). Of the kings of Bavaria, since it was made a constitutional monarchy in 1818, whose reigns have been the longest, may be mentioned Louis I., who held the throne 23 years, and Louis II., who reigned from 18641886. As a constitutional monarchy founded in 1831, Belgium's first king, Leopold, reigned 34 years, and on his death he was succeeded by his son, who up to the present time has reigned over 31 years.

In 1512 Ferdinand V. united the various crowns of Spain, and in 1516 was succeeded by Charles I. who reigned 40 years, being followed on his abdication by Philip II., whose reign lasted 42 years. Philip IV. held the throne for 44 years, and in 1700 Philip V., grandson of Louis XIV. of France, succeeded Charles II., and hence arose the "War of the Succession," which was terminated in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht. 1724 the resignation of Philip was announced, but after a few months he reascended the throne, which he held till 1746-a period of 46 years from the time he first ascended it. And the next and last longest reign was that of Isabella II., who was declared queen 1833 (born October 10, 1830) and reigned 37 years, abdicating in 1870 in favor of her son, Alfonso.

In

After defeating the Moors on the plains of Ourique in 1139, Alfonso I. was declared King of Portugal, and reigned 46