sponsored. An exception is the tutoring system at San Angelo, Texas, which although initiated for Negroes was later opened to white students to avoid any implication of favoritism. The Montgomery County, Maryland, plan to keep the ratio of white to Negro pupils at 2 to I or less, and reduce the pupil-teacher ratio, appears to have been intended primarily to benefit white children and to secure acceptance of integration by white parents, although Negro children, too, would benefit from the smaller classes.

The second half of the chapter describes 16 programs, to improve the educational opportunity of the minority-group child. Some of these stress guidance counseling and remedial instruction. The need of outside stimulus to provide motivation is a common theme in several; e.g., the Banneker Group program, Demonstration Guidance Project, Higher Horizons, as well as the two private projects-Ken Gar and Careers Unlimited, described earlier in the chapter. All recognize the need to interest parents in their children's educational welfare and to make it clear that higher goals are possible for those who will prepare for them, whatever their social, economic, or ethnic background.

The apparently greater success of the 3-year Banneker program visà-vis the 5-year Phelps-Stokes project invites comparisons. The locale of one is in the border city of St. Louis, the other in the Deep South; one began at grade 1, the other at grade 9. (On the basis of the Demonstration Guidance Project which began with seventh-grade pupils, New York City decided it must dip down to the third grade in Higher Horizons.) The younger age of the Banneker children may have helped. Another obvious difference is that the Banneker program stressed motivation both of children and parents. Phelps-Stokes stressed the quality of instruction. Undoubtedly, the latter is important; the former may be crucial.

The Commission is not prepared to compare the teachers of the Banneker schools with those of the 16 high schools in the more Southern States included in the Phelps-Stokes project. It seems, however, that when challenged to stop "teaching by IQ," the teachers in the Banneker schools did wonders. Dr. Dent's remarks at the Williamsburg conference with regard to the plight of the large majority of Negro teachers in the Deep South should be recalled: 112

We are talking about how to motivate and inspire students, mostly in a segregated school system, where the teachers, themselves, lack motivation and inspiration, because they are the products of this type of situation, so that our problem is not only to deal with these students who are now in school, to conduct experiments, such as the Higher Horizons Program in New York and what Dr. Shepard is doing in St. Louis and the like; our problem also is to find some way to remove the inept teaching which these students get, the lack of

motivation, the lack of inspiration on the part of teachers who are working with them, so that our problem, I think, and the problem for this Commission to consider, is how we might possibly find ways of interesting the teachers in our public school system and how to overcome these problems which are brought upon us and which are inherent in the segregated school system.

Oak Park's careful plans to equalize the educational opportunities of the Carver area children awaits completion. Its first phase-concentration on the neglected health problems of the Negro children-seems a sound beginning. Many pupil placement laws contain criteria relating to health, suggesting an intention to place children in various schools by reference to their health. This can hardly be proper unless all the schools are classified in terms of health, and the same health standards applied to all children attending them. Oak Park recognized that a single standard should be applied and is trying to solve the health problems instead of using them as a basis of discrimination.

New York City's Demonstration Guidance Project seems to have proven two things beyond dispute: (1) that IQ tests are far from trustworthy, and (2) that the minority-group child can rise to high academic achievement if shown how to do so.

The marked decline in juvenile delinquency both in Maryland's Ken Gar community and in New York's Junior High School No. 43 is a happy byproduct of those projects. The preliminary reports on the Higher Horizons Program suggest this may be a benefit from that program as well. Since it is estimated that the cost of curing one juvenile delinquent is $30,000, the added per pupil cost of $50 a year per grade for the Higher Horizons Program may be a wise expenditure.

The number of constructive projects in the North and the West, financed at least in part by local taxes, indicates that many Americans now recognize that "we have to do a lot more for some children just to give them the same chance to learn." They also are testimony to the abiding faith of America that "all men are created equal" and should have equal opportunities.

9. Southern Libraries

Sixteen years ago the United States Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit had occasion to consider the function of a public library in modern society.1

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It is generally recognized that the maintenance of a public library is a proper function of the State; and nowhere has the thought been better expressed than in Johnson v. Baltimore, 158 Md. 93, 103, 104, 148A., 209, 213 where the court said: . . . At the present time it is generally recognized and conceded by all thoughtful people that such institutions form an integral part of a system of free public education and are among its most efficient and valuable adjuncts. An enlightened and educated public has come to be regarded as the surest safeguard for the maintenance and advancement of the progress of civilized nations. More particularly is this true in republican forms of government, wherein all citizens have a voice. It is also true that education of the people ought not to and does not stop upon their leaving school, but must be kept abreast of the time by almost constant reading and studying. It would therefore seem that no more important duty or higher purpose is incumbent upon a State or municipality than to provide free public libraries for the benefit of its inhabitants.

In this chapter the Commission will report the information it has obtained on denial of equal protection of the laws by libraries receiving financial aid from the Federal Government under the Library Services Act of 1956.2

For years public library services in the 17 Southern States have followed the traditional pattern of racial segregation, but practices often went beyond the "separate but equal". According to a 1955 estimate "two-thirds of the Negro population of . . . 13 Southern States were entirely without library services in 1953.' ." Recently Rice Estes, a southerner (now librarian at the Pratt Institute Library, Brooklyn, New York), observed that in most southern towns not only were Negroes denied admission to the white branches of libraries, but also to the main

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central library where the majority of the books are kept. He concluded: "

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Most librarians are unaware of the fact that most public libraries below the Mason and Dixon Line are segregated [and] .. nearly 10 million Negro citizens of our land are totally or partially denied access to publicly owned books.

It was through Mr. Estes' efforts that the members of the American Library Association, meeting in Chicago early in 1961, adopted (by a 200 to I vote) a resolution declaring that "the rights of an individual to the use of a library should not be denied or abridged because of his race, religion, national origins, or political views." A subsequent report observes that public libraries in the South are still segregated to a great extent."

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CITY LIBRARIES

In 1959 it was reported that some 70 southern cities admitted Negroes to full use of main public libraries.' On August 15, 1958 a suit was filed for the desegregation of the public libraries in Memphis, Tennessee, and another was filed on May 23, 1960 for the desegregation of those in Savannah, Georgia. In the case of Memphis, the efforts of sit-in demonstrators as well as the pending litigation brought about the voluntary desegregation of the local libraries on October 13, 1960.9a

On March 21, 1960, in fact 36 Negroes were fined $25 each in the Memphis City Court for staging a sit-down at the white public library, and a Negro newspaper editor was fined $50 for inciting them.10 A few weeks later four additional Memphis Negro students were jailed for refusing to comply with the request of a librarian and of the police to leave a "white only" section of the downtown public library." The efforts of sit-in demonstrators in Jackson, Mississippi, however, have been of no avail. In early April 1961, nine Negro college students held Mississippi's first sit-in demonstration at the Jackson public library and were arrested.12

Danville, Virginia's, public library was desegregated as the result of both sit-in demonstrations and court action. Negroes previously had been issued cards valid only at the Negro branch, but on occasion they had been allowed to use the main library. On April 2, 1960, however, after a dozen Negro high school students staged a brief sitdown at the main municipal public library, it was closed. Two days later the city