with it the conquest of Africa, which was when Scipio burnt the two camps by night, and cut in pieces both the armies of the enemy.

The frequent successes which Hannibal had in laying ambuscades for the Romans, and thereby destroying so many generals with their best troops, in concealing his marches from them, in surprising them by unforeseen attacks, in removing from one part of Italy to another, without finding any obstacle, on the enemy's part, are a proof of the profound secrecy with which he concerted and executed all his enterprises. Subtlety, refined disguise, and stratagem, were his prevailing talents; and all this could only succeed by impenetrable secrecy.

3. To know well the Character of the Generals against whom one is to engage.

It is a great piece of skill, and an important part of the knowledge of war, to be thoroughly acquainted with the character of the generals who command the enemy's ariny, and to know how to take advantage of their faults, for, says Polybius, it is either the ignorance or negligence of commanders which makes the generality of enterprises miscarry. Hannibal possessed this science to perfection, and it may be truly said, that his continual attention to the genius of the Roman generals, was one of the principal causes which gained the battles of Trebia and Thrasimene. [r] He knew all that passed in the enemy's camp, as well as in his own. When Paulus and Varro were sent against him, he was soon informed of the different characters of those two commanders, and of their divisions, dissimiles discordesque imperitare; and he did not fail to make his advantage of the eagerness and impetuosity of Varro, by laying baits for his rashness, in suffering him to gain some slight advantages, which were followed by the famous overthrow at Cannæ.

[x] Omnia ei hostium haud secus, Nec quicquam eorum, quæ apud quàm sua, nota erant. Liv. lib. hostes agebantur, eum fallebat. Ib.

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castra hostium per occasionem incendendi.

4. To keep up an exact Discipline in the Army.

"Military discipline is in a manner the soul of the army, which connects and unites all the parts of it together, which puts them in motion, or keeps them at rest, as there is occasion, which points out and distributes to each their proper functions, and contains them all within the bounds of duty.

It is allowed, that our two generals excelled in this particular; but it must be owned that Hannibal's method in this point, seems far superior to Scipio's. [z] Thusithas always been looked upon as a master-piece in the art of war, that Hannibal, during sixteen years war in a foreign land, at such a distance from his own country with such various success, at the head of an army, made up, not of Carthaginians, but a confused body of several nations, who were neither united by customs, language, habits, arms, ceremonies, or sacrifices, and had even very different objects of worship; that Hannibal, I say, should have so united them together, that there never arose any sedition, either amongst themselves or against him, though provisions were frequently wanting, and their pay often delayed. How necessary was it for a strict discipline to be firmly established, and inviolably oberved among the troops to obtain this effect.

1. To live after a plain, modest, frugal, and laborious Manner.

It is a very ill taste, and argues little elevation of hind to make the grandeur of an officer or a general, onsist in the magnificence of his equipage, furniture, [y] Liv. lib. xxx, [k] Lib. xxviii. n. 12.

a people as we are, to copy the manners and customs of the Persians, by introducing the luxury of cities into the camp and army. May not an officer or commander better employ the time, care and expence, which all this apparatus necessarily draws along with it; and does he not owe them to his country? Commanders of old thought and acted in a very different

manner.

Livy gives Hannibal an encomium which I am afraid several of our officers may have cause to blushat. "There was no labour, says he, sufficient to fatigue "his body, or sink his spirits. He supported heat and "cold equally. He eat and drank out of necessity "and want, and not out pleasure. He had no set "hour of going to rest, but took that time for sleep "which was unemployed in business; neither was it procured by silence, or the softness of his couch. "He often lay upon the ground, wrapt up in a sol"dier's coat, amidst the centinels and guard." He was distinguished from his equals, not by a greater magnificence of dress, but by better horses and arms.

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Polybius, after commending Scipio for the shining virtues which were admired in him, such as his liberality, magnificence and greatness of soul, adds, that those who knew him thoroughly no less admired [a] his sober and frugal life, which enabled him to apply himself wholly to public business. He was not very nice about his apparel; it was manly and military, and very suitable to his person, which was tall and majestic. [b] Præterquam suapte naturâ multa majestas inerat, adornabat promissa cæsaries habitusque corporis non cultus munditiis, sed virilis verè Polyb. p. 577..

[α] Αγχίνες, καὶ νήπλης, τη δικινόα περὶ τὸ προτεθέν έλαμένος.

[b] Liv. lib. xxviii. n. 25.

of their duty, which [d] Cambyses so carefully recommends to his son Cyrus, as extremely proper to encourage the troops, and make them love their officers, and that is to set an example of labour to the soldiers, by supporting like them, and even more than they, cold, heat, and fatigue; wherein he [e] says, the difference will always be very great between the general and the soldier, as the labours of the last are attended only with pain, whereas the other, in being exposed a spectacle to the eyes of the whole army, gains by it both honour and glory, motives that very much takes off from the weight of the fatigue, and renders it lighter.

Scipio, however, was no enemy to discreet and well-tempered mirth. [f] Livy, speaking of the honourable reception king Philip gave him, when he passed with his brother through his dominions, in their march against Antiochus, observes that Scipio was very much pleased with it, and admired the graceful and insinuating manners with which the king of Macedon improved his entertainment; qualities, adds Livy, with this illustrious Roman, who was in other respects so great, very much esteemed, provided they did not degenerate into pomp and luxury.

[c] Senec. Epist. 86.

[d] Xenophon. in Cyrop. lib. 1. [e] Itaque semper Africanus (the second Scipio) Socraticum Xenophontem in manibus habebat ; cujus imprimis laudabat illud, quòd diceret eosdem labores non esse æquè graves imperatori & militi, quòd ipse honos laborem leviorem faceret imperatorum. Cic. lib. ii.

Tusc. Quest. n. 62.

[f] Venientes regio appartu accepit & prosecutus est rex. Multa in eo & dexeritas & humanitas visa, quæ commendabilia apud Africanum erant ; virum sicut ad cetera egregium ita à comitate, quæ sine luxuriâ esset, non adversum. Lib. xxxvii. n. 7.

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6. To

of war, finesse and stratagem are often more serviceable than open force and declared designs.

This was Hannibal's excellency. In all his actions, enterprises and battles, dexterity and cunning had ever the greatest share. [g] The manner in which he deceived the wisest and most considerate officer that was sent against him, by setting fire to the straw that was tied round the horns of two thousand oxen, to extricate himself from a false step he had taken, may suffice alone to shew how dextrous Hannibal was in the science of stratagems. [h] Scipio was no less acquainted with it; as we may learn from the circumstance of his setting fire to the two camps of the eneiny in Africa.

7. Never to hazard his Person without a Necessity.

[i] Polybius lays it down as an essential and capital maxim for a commanding officer, that he should never expose his person, when the action is not general and decisive, and that even then he should keep at as great a distance from danger as possible. He confirms his maxim by the contrary example of Marcellus, whose rash bravery, which ill suited a general of his age and experience, cost him his life, and had like to have ruined the republic. Upon this occasion he observes that Hannibal, who, without doubt, can never be suspected of fear, and too great a fondness for life, in all his battles was ever careful of the security of his person; and [k] he makes the same remark of Scipio, who, in the siege of Carthagena, was obliged to act in person, and expose himself to danger, though he did it with the utmost prudence and circumspection.