slowly, and are then put into the kiln, which is nearly the same as that used for burning stoneware. In this kiln they receive a certain degree of heat, by which the vessels are rendered capable of being handled, and the clay loses its property of forming a paste with water. The vessels are then dipped in the glaze, which consists of felspar rock ground to a fine powder, and formed into a paste with water mingled with a little vinegar. When taken out of the glaze, the vessels are inspected, and the glazing matter applied with a hair-brush to any parts which may remain uncovered. A quality peculiar to porcelain is, that it softens in the fire, for which reason one piece cannot be piled above another in the sags, as is done with stoneware. Every porcelain vessel requires a sag for itself, with a piece of level stoneware in the bottom, covered with sand. This prevents the vessels from warping. The sags are piled above each other in the kiln, and wood put into the furnaces. The heat is gradually increased for fifteen hours, at the end of which time the inside of the kiln has a cherry-red colour. The temperature is then greatly increased by putting small chips of aspen wood into the furnace, which is continued for from thirteen to fifteen hours. The whole firing occupies from thirty to thirty-six hours, when the porcelain is baked. The kiln is allowed to cool gradually for three or four days; and when taken out the bottom of the vessels are covered with the sand put into the sag, which is removed by friction.

Porcelain vessels are very brittle, and are easily damaged, which accounts in some degree for the high price at which they are sold. It is calculated that after being manufactured, one-third of the articles are damaged, most of which takes place in the kiln.

MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER.

Leather making is the art by which the skins of animals are rendered impervious to the action of those external agents which would otherwise decompose them. This effect is brought about by steeping the skins in a certain astringent principle called tannin, and may be performed either with the hair on, or, as is generally the case, when it is taken off the skins. Tannin is obtained from the bark of a number of trees, particularly the East India catechu, the common oak, the Spanish chestnut, the Leicester willow, &c. It is found in the largest quantities in catechu-one pound of this, according to Mr. Purkis, being equal to seven or eight pounds of oak bark. Tannin is also obtained, by a peculiar preparation, from the gall nuts of the Levant oak.

When the bark of trees is to be used for tanning, it should be stripped from the trunk and branches in the spring, when the sap flows most freely. The trees should not be less than thirty years old, for it has been found that the bark possesses more tannin when old than when in a young state. The bark, when dried, is ground in a mill, to reduce it to a rough powder, after which it is ready to be used.

The first process which the skins undergo is steeping in lime-water, which is continued for a longer or shorter time, according as the skins are dry or fresh. Sometimes the skins are salted when they are imported from abroad; and in this case they require to be steeped, beaten, and rubbed, until they are brought to a fresh state. The horns are then cut off, and the skins put in heaps for a day or two, after which they are hung up in a shed. During this process, a slight putrefaction takes place, by which the hair on one side, and the fleshy matter on the other, are easily removed. This is done by a blunt knife, or scraper, the skins being stretched úpon a wooden beam called a horse. The skins are then immersed for about forty-eight hours in water mixed with a little sulphuric acid, which has the effect of distending

the fibres, causing the skins to swell. This process is called raising, and by it the tannin principle more easily reaches the inner fibres. When sufficiently raised, the skins are put into a pit with a layer of bark in the bottom. On this skins are laid, and then bark and skins alternately. The pit is filled up with a strong decoction of bark, and the whole is allowed to lie undisturbed for about six weeks. At the end of this time, it will be found that the tannin has become entirely exhausted, when the skins must be taken out, and put again into the pit, along with fresh bark. In this they are allowed to lie for three months; and this process is repeated two or three times, according to the quality of the leather required. From six to eight months in all are sufficient to complete the tanning of the commonest kind of sole leather, called crop by the trade; but for the better kinds of sole leather, from a year to a year and a half will be required. Eend leather is the strongest of all sole leather, and in manufacturing it, the tanning process is continued for a longer period than is necessary for crop. The best and thickest skins, also, are selected for this kind.

When properly tanned, crop leather is hung up in an airy house to dry, which is performed slowly, and the article is then fit for the market. Bend leather, after being dried, is beaten into a firm consistence, so that when cut, the edges present a glossy appearance. The instrument with which bend leather is beaten is a broad brass hammer; and this kind of leather may be easily distinguished from its being darker in the colour, in consequence of lying longer in the tannin.

A coarse kind of upper leather is also made from cowhides, the weakest and thinnest being selected for this purpose. When taken out of the lime-water, and the hair scraped off, these hides are immersed in a solution of the ordure of pigeons, which has the effect of neutralizing the lime. They are then stretched upon a board, and from the inner or fleshy side slices are taken with a sharp knife, until the operator thinks it is reduced to a proper thickness, an operation which is technically called shaving in the bait." The skins are then put into the tan-pits, where they remain for about six months, after which they are sent to the currier. The skins of seals, calves, &c., are manufactured into upper leather in the same way, except that an equal extent of shaving is not required.

66

Several improvements have been made in the manufacture of leather, by which the tannin principle is more readily admitted to the inner fibres of the skins. One of the improved methods is that of Messrs. Herapath and Cox of Bristol, and consists in using a machine of two roilers, which is placed in the middle between two tan-pits. The hides, having been previously divested of the hair, &c., are fastened together, and put into the tan-pit in regular folds. After lying in this for a certain time, the end of the belt of hides is laid upon the under roller, which, being set in motion, carries the belt over to the other tan-pit. This is done without pressure; but when the hides have become soft, the upper roller is pressed down against the under one. The hides are again passed through between the rollers, which press out the exhausted tannin, and prepare them for being submitted to a fresh infusion. By the old method, the hides were taken from one pit to another without receiving any pressure, and consequently a quantity of exhausted tannin must have remained in them when put into the fresh liquor. By using this machine, however, this is altogether obviated; and leather may now be tanned in four months, a process which formerly took from eight to twelve. The material is also said to be of a firmer texture, and remains longer waterproof than that produced by the old system.

The most recent improvements are those of Mr. Joha Cox of Gorgie Mills, near Edinburgh, and for which he has obtained patents He announces six impre ved pro

cesses of tanning, any of which may be adopted. His great object to force the liquid tannin into the vesicles of the skin, and this he proposes to do as follows, in his four à process, which he considers the most suitable in ordinary circumstances. The skin is to be sewed into the form of a bag, and immersed in tanning liquor, while the interior is also filled and compressed from a supply of liquor through a pipe from a cistern placed a few feet above the pit:-"The hide or skin bag being tied tightly at the neck-end to the feeding tube (which tube should be long enough to dip a little down amongst the liquor in the pit in which the bag is to be immersed), tanning liquor is to be supplied to the feeding cistern, when the bag will swell until it can contain no more liquor, when percolation will commence, and be continued with a vigour proportionally to the height of the liquor in the feeding cistern above the liquor in the pit of immersion. As the bag fills with liquor, the pit (having been previously full) will overflow, unless the liquor is supplied from the pit of immersion; and therefore a run-way must be made for the liquor to flow to a reservoir, from which it may be pumped or lifted again to the feeding cistern; and as the percolation goes on, the liquor will flow to the reservoir, again to be raised and circulated as before. The hides or skins tanned according to this process may also be confined in compartments, or jammed against each other for the sake of saving room and quantity of liquor necessary at a time, as described as being practicable in the atmosphere; but I prefer that each bag should have ample room for swelling out as far as its dimensions will permit, as the tanning goes on rather more rapidly and equally in all the parts; while the tension generated by the hydrostatic pressure is more equal, rendering the leather more equal in texture and quality. In this process of tanning there is a double hydrostatic pressure exerted a greater, which is exerted inside of the bag, and a lesser, which is exerted outside of the bag; and it is the surplus pressure (which is equal to all parts of the bag) of the one above the other that causes the percolation of liquor from within outwards. In all these four processes now described, I prefer that the grain side of the hide or skin be outwards, though I do not confine myself thereto; and I also prefer that some bark or other solid tanning ingredient be introduced into the bags, so as to help to keep up the strength of liquor, and to stop up any holes or apertures that may be in the hide or skin." For further particulars, we refer to Mr. Cox's Specification of Patents. We understand that, by any of his processes, a hide may be as effectually tanned in a week as it was by the old tan-pit method in twelve months, while there is at the same time a saving of tanning material and gelatine.

Skins intended for the manufacture of gloves require in the first place to be washed with pure water. This is done in a cistern placed, if possible, near a running stream; and immediately after being washed, the skins must be worked, or they are liable to become marked with indelible spots. They are next rubbed upon a convex beam, and the rough parts removed with the fleshing-knife. The fleshy sides of the skins are then covered with a cream of lime, and piled together with the wool sides of each pair outermost. They are left in this state for from four to six days, or until the wool is found to come easily off. The skins are then washed in a running water, to free them from the lime, and the wool is taken off by means of small spring tweezers. After this they are fleeced smooth by a rolling-pin, or by rubbing with a whetstone.

The next operation to be performed is steeping the skins in a strong solution of lime, for the purpose of swelling and softening them. They are then put into weak lime-water, and drained upon inclined tables; which is repeated several times, the process occupying about three weeks. The outsides are then rubbed with

a whetstone, to remove any wool which may still remain; and the skins are then fit for what is called in onning. Into twenty gallons of water forty pounds of bran are put, and the skins are steeped in this mixture until they sink, which they will generally do in about two days in summer and eight in winter. During the brauning process, the skins must be frequently stirred, that each may get a due share of the liquid. They are next steeped in a solution of alum and sea-salt, which is called the white stuff. From twelve to eighteen pounds of alum, and about three pounds of salt, are put into a copper with twelve gallons of water. This mixture is dissolved by heating the copper; and when about to boil, three gallons of the solution are poured into a basin, in which twenty-six skins are worked one after another. The twelve gallons are thought sufficient for one hundred skins; and when all have been worked, they are allowed to steep for about ten minutes. The skins are then taken out, and fifteen pounds of wheat flour are added to the solution. This is next run out of the copper vessel, and the yokes of fifty eggs put into it, in which the skins are worked and afterwards allowed to steep for a day. They are then taken out, stretched upon poles, and allowed to dry.

By this operation the leather is rendered very white and soft, which enables it to bear the working of the softening-iron. This consists of a plate of iron about a foot broad, mounted upon an upright beam thirty inches high, which is fixed to the end of a plank three and a half feet long. This plank is heavily loaded; and the skins having been previously wetted, they are rubbed with the iron upon a board. The skins are sometimes stretched upon the horse, and well rubbed with a blunt two-edged knife, and afterwards polished with pumicestone. They are then worked upon the stretching-iron, and afterwards smoothed with a hot iron.

Sheep-skins are frequently dressed for household purposes, and on this account are technically called housings. For this purpose, those skins are selected which have the longest and most beautiful fleece. They are first well washed and steeped in water, to render them soft, and then thinned with the fleshing-knife, after which they are put into the bran-pit for four days. The same process as for glove leather, of steeping in alum water and rubbing with paste, is then performed. The skins are next worked upon the horse, stretched upon the stretchingiron, and then dried in the sun with the fleecy side

outermost.

Chamois leather is prepared by washing, steeping in lime-water, taking off the fleece, and then branning the skins as before described. The outer skin, or epidermis, is next cut off upon the horse, which removes all excrescences. and renders the skins equal in thickness, They are then branned for a short time, the liquid wrung out of them, and then well beat in a fulling-mill. The next process is to oil the skins, which is done by sprinkling and rubbing over them any cheap animal oil. The skins are afterwards oiled and beat several times, and are then subjected to a fermenting process; after which they are washed in potash ley, and then dried.

Morocco leather is manufactured from goat-skin, but a spurious article is frequently sold under this name, which is made from sheep-skin. The process is much the same as for glove leather, except that the washing is performed oftener, and the skins are salted previous to being dyed. Morocco leather is dyed with cochineal, about an ounce being required for each skin. The cochineal is boiled for a few minutes in water along with a little alum, and is then filtered into a cask. Each skin is sewed together edgewise, the grain side cutermost, and agitated in the dye liquor for half an hour; after which it is beat and again put into the cask. The skin is next tanned in a decoction of sumach. The tanning is performed twice, the process requiring about twenty-four hours. The skins

are then rubbed hard with a copper blade, and hung up to dry. The cochineal gives a scarlet colour to morocco leather; but other colours may be given to it, such as black, by using the red acctate of iron; blue, by indigo; yellow, from the roots of the barberry.

Currying is the process by which the newly-tanned rough leather is converted into the soft, flexible, and jetcoloured article from which the upper leathers of shoes are made. The currier first steeps the leather, and then places upon it a piece of basket work, upon which he treads, in order to soften it. He then shaves the leather by means of a double-edged knife with a horizontal handle at each end. The edges of this knife are curved, and in cutting, it is held nearly at right angles to the leather, which is thrown over an upright beam. The currier stands behind this beam and scrapes downwards. By this means all inequalities are removed, the leather being rendered uniform in thickness and firm in the texture. What is called a stretching-iron is also used, which still further firms the grain; and cleaning knives to make the surface smooth.

The leather is then pommelled by an instrument grooved on the under side and with a cross strap on the top, under which the hand of the workman goes. The leather is folded with its grain side in contact, and rubbed strongly with the pommel, which gives it a granular appearance and greater flexibility. It is then conveyed to the drying-house, where grease is applied to soften it. The grease employed is a mixture of tallow and cod-oil, called dubbing, and is applied to the leather by means of hard brushes upon a large broad table. When well

|

greased, the leather is hung up to dry, in order that it may thoroughly imbibe the oily matter. It is then well scraped, to free it from all superfluous oil, which would otherwise injure its appearance and prevent it from receiving the colour readily. The leather is then rubbed on the flesh side with a brush dipped in a composition of oil and lamp-black, until it is thoroughly black. It is then black-sized with a brush or sponge, rubbed agair with the oily matter, and afterwards scraped with glass, When coloured upon the grain side, a solution of sulphate of iron or copperas is employed. The leather is then wetted with stale urine, and afterwards rubbed with an iron, to render the grain as fine as possible.

Cow-hides, when dressed for upper leather, are called neat's leather, and the shoes made from it are coarse. Common shoes are in general made from calf-skin, which is prepared in the same manner. The uppers of boots are all made from calf-skin, the best part for this purpose being the back and flank. This also applies to cow-skin leather. A considerable quantity of shoes are made from a description of leather called kip, which is prepared from the hides of young cattle. It is neither so fine nor so soft as that made from calf-skin, but is superior to the leather of full-grown cow-hides. Horses' hides were formerly much used for making leather, but they are now almost entirely superseded by cow-hides, which are greatly preferred. They were prepared much in the same manner, and when dressed, were generally known by the name of cordovan hides. Besides what is supplied by the home markets, this country annually imports large quantities of hides from abroad.

Ir is the object of the following pages to exhibit such a view of the principles and practice of music as may be calculated for popular information and use. The path to musical knowledge has for the most part been rendered rugged and toilsome by the interposition of many needless difficulties. Things really plain and simple have been invested with an air of mystery; and the great principles and leading rules of the art, though in themselves easily explained and easily understood. have been buried beneath a mass of useless technicalities. The conviction that this is the case has sometimes led to the opposite extreme; and the study of music has been apparently simplified by short-hand methods and mechanical contrivances, devised to diminish the labour of reflection and memory. But there is no "royal road" to music any more than to mathematics. Skill in its practice is to be gained only by a clear understanding of its principles. All that the instructor can do is to divest those principles of unnecessary obscurity, and to present the rules of practice in their simplest and most comprehensive form. The rest must be done by the intelligence, attention, and perseverance of the student.

The musical artist, whether as a composer, a singer, or an instrumental performer, requires a very different degree of knowledge and skill from the amateur, who cultivates the art as an elegant accomplishment and as a refined and intellectual pastime-an innocent and salutary relaxation from the severer cares and occupa

The editors think it proper to mention that the present treatise is the composition of Mr. George Hogarth, author of "Musical History," and "Memoirs of the Musical Drama."

station

tions of life. In this point of view, there is or degree of society in which music may not be culti vated with advantage. And the experience of the present day has shown, and is showing more and more, that even the classes who earn their daily bread by the sweat of their brow may find in music a recreation within their reach, full of innocent enjoyment, and pregnant with moral and social benefits. It has been found that the highest pleasures which it can impart-pleasures derived from the knowledge of its noblest productionsare accessible to the humblest as weil as the highest; and that it is to the toil-worn artificer, mechanic, and labourer, that music dispenses its best and dearest blessings.

Those, however, whatever may be their station in society, who are to derive such benefits from music, must acquire a knowledge of it as an art, whose princi ples and rules afford exercise to the intellect, and whose lofty and beautiful productions exalt and purify the mind Many tribes, in a very rude state of society, exhibit much sensibility to music, and derive much pleasure from the simple strains in which, taught by nature alone, they give expression to their feelings; and there is no doubt, that even to their untutored minds, music, such as they possess, is a source of much higher and better en joyment than the mere gratification of sense. But it is only, we repeat, where music has become an art, and where its exercise is invested with the dignity of an intellectual pursuit, that its effects as an instrument of civilization and moral improvement become evident and striking.

There is no country in which the moral and social