general, and the third particular, the middle term being the subject in the first propo-, sition, and the predicate in the second. Thus,

BA Every evil ought to be feared:
RA Every violent passion is an evil;

of which are like the barbed irons used for striking of fish.

BARBEL. See CYPRINUS.

BARBER, one who makes a trade of shaving the beards and heads of men, and of making wigs, &c. Formerly the business

BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, an outer defence, or fortification to a city or castle, used especially as a fence to the city, or walls; also, an aperture made in the walls of a fortress, to fire through upon the enemy. It is also used as a watch-tower to descry the approach of the enemy; and it sometimes denotes a fort at the entrance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city having a double wall with towers.

BARBACENIA, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order. Calyx superior; six-toothed; corol six-petalled; filaments petal-shaped, toothed; capsule glandular, three-valved, many-seeded. Only one species, found at Brazil.

BARBADOES tar, a mineral fluid of the nature of the thicker fluid bitumens, of a nauseous, bitterish taste, very strong and disagreeable smell, found in many parts of America trickling down the sides of the mountains, and sometimes floating on the surface of the waters. It has been greatly recommended in coughs, and other disorders of the breast and lungs.

BARBARA, among logicians, the first mode of the first figure of syllogisms.

A syllogism in barbara, is one whereof all the propositions are universal and affirmative; the middle term being the subject of the first proposition, and attributed in the second. For example,

BAR Every wicked man is miserable; BA All tyrants are wicked men ; RA Therefore all tyrants are miserable. BARBE, in the military art: to fire in barbe, means to fire the cannon over the parapet, instead of firing through the embrasures; in which case the parapet must not be above three feet and a half high.

BARBED and crested, in heraldry, an appellation given to the combs and gills of a cock, when particularized for being of a different tincture from the body.

A barbed cross, is a cross the extremities

and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII. by which the surgeons were formed into a distinct corporation, that existed till the late establishment of "The Royal College of Surgeons of London." In England a musical instrument was part of the furniture of a barber-surgeon's shop, which was used by persons above the ordinary level of life, who resorted thither for the cure of wounds, for bleeding, or trimming, a word that signified shaving, and cutting, or curling the hair. Bleeding and tooth-drawing are now very commonly practised in country places by barbers, and the pole stuck out as the sign of their profession, is supposed to indicate the staff which is held in the patient's hand during the act of bleeding, and the fillet with which it is wound, is tied up after the operation is completed.

BARBERRY, in botany. See BERBE

RIS.

BARD, a poet among the ancient Gauls and Britons, who celebrated the praises of heroes, with a view to inculcate virtue, and sometimes to terminate a difference between two armies at the point of engagement. It is disputed in what the bards differed from the Druids; some pretend that these were the priests and philosophers of the nation, and that those were only the poets and historians; but it is more probable that Druid was a general word, comprehending the priests, the judges, the instructors of youth, and the bards or poets. See Druid.

The bards were not only the poets but the genealogists, biographers, and historians of those countries and ages. The genealogical sonnets of the Irish bards are still the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. It was customary for the bards to sing these compositions in the presence of their nobles, and at their chief festivals and solemnities. In the Highlands of Scotland there are bards still in being, and considerable remains of many of the compositions of the old British bards still preserved; but the most genuine, entire, and valuable remains of the works of the ancient bards, and perhaps the noblest specimen of unculti

vated genius, if not the most sublime fragments of ancient poetry now extant, are the poems of Ossian the son of Fingal, a king of the Highlands, who flourished in the second or third century, lately collected by Mr. Mac-Pherson, and by him translated from the Erse or Gaelic language into English.

The reputation, influence, and power of this order of men were formerly very high, they were courted by the great, and seated at the tables of princes. Their power in exciting the courage and rousing the fury of armies is universally recorded, and generals have often confessed themselves indebted for victory to their heroic strains. They were not unfrequently chosen negotiators with the enemy, and the deeds of the day were in the evening recorded in their songs; and the fame of their fallen heroes perpetuated by their praise.

BARGAIN, in commerce, a contract or agreement in buying and selling. Hence, to buy a good bargain is to buy cheap.

Bargain is also an agreement to give a certain price; and there are three things requisite to make it complete and perfect. 1. The merchandise sold. 2. The price. 3. The mutual agreement or consent.

The merchandise sold ought to be certain, the price of the thing sold should be paid in current money, otherwise it would be an exchange; and the consent ought to be equally free, on both sides, from error and violence. If then there happens to be an error in the substance of the thing bought, it makes the bargain void; but if it lies only in the quality of the thing sold, it does not dissolve the bargain, provided there be no voluntary fraud on the side of the seller. Thus, if I design to buy pewter, and instead of that, the person sells me lead, the sale cannot stand good, because I was imposed upon in the very substance of the thing I wanted to buy. But if I designed to buy a clock that went true, and it does not prove so, the bargain ought to stand, because I was deceived in the qualities only of the thing sold to me.

A bargain and sale of lands, &c. in fee, must, according to our law, be in writing, indented, and enrolled either in one of the courts at Westminster, or in the county where the lands lie, before the custos rotulorum, and justices of peace. A warrant and covenant may be inserted in a bargain and sale, but the deed is good without any such addition; and if it be made for money and natural affection, the estate will pass, though you do not enrol it.

BARGE, in naval affairs, a boat of state and pleasure, adorned with various ornaments, having bales and tilts, and seats covered with cushions and carpets, and benches for many oars; as a company's barge, an admiral's barge, &c. It is also the name of a flat-bottomed vessel employed for carrying goods in a navigable river, as those upon the river Thames, called west country barges.

BARILLA, in the arts, is an alkaline substance, prepared principally in Spain and Italy from sea-plants, which are there cultivated for the purpose. The discovery of the use of these plants was made by the Saracens in Spain, who called the particular plant from which they extracted it kali, which, with the addition of the Arabian article al, gave rise to the term alkali. The barilla is obtained by cutting down the plant when it has attained its full height, and drying it; after which it is burnt, and during the operation the ashes harden into lumps or cakes. This country is supplied with barilla, chiefly from Spain, the island of Teneriffe, and Sicily. It is used by glassmakers, soap-boilers, bleachers, and in other manufactures.

use.

BARK, in vegetable anatomy, a term which denotes the exterior part of vegetable bodies; which is separable from the other parts of the plant, during the season of vegetation, but at other times requires maceration in water, or boiling; and when detached by any of these means, the fine connections which unite it to the wood are destroyed. When bark is thus separated, and seen by means of the microscope, it exhibits parts differing much in structure and These have been divided into the cuticle or epidermis; the cellular envelope or parenchyma, and the cortical layer and liber. The epidermis is a thin transparent membrane, which covers all the outside of the bark. It is pretty tough. When inspected with a microscope, it appears to be composed of a number of slender fibres crossing each other, and forming a kind of net-work. It seems even to consist of different thin retiform membranes, adhering closely together. This, at least, is the case with the epidermis of the birch, which Mr. Duhamel separated into six layers. The epidermes, when rubbed off, is reproduced. In old trees it cracks and decays, and new epidermis are successively formed. This is the reason that the trunks of many old trees have a rough surface. The parenchyma lies immediately below the epidermis; it is

of a deep green colour, very tender and succulent. When viewed with a microscope, it seems to be composed of fibres which cross each other in every direction, like the fibres which compose a net. Both in it and the epidermis there are numberless interstices, which have been compared to so many small bladders. The cortical layers form the innermost part of the bark, or that which is next to the wood. They consist of several thin membranes, lying the one above the other; and their number appears to increase with the age of the plant. Each of these layers is composed of longitudinal fibres, which separate and approach each other alternately, so as to form a kind of net-work. The meshes of this net-work correspond in each of the layers; and they become smaller and smaller in every layer as it approaches the wood. These meshes are filled with a green-coloured cellular substance, which has been compared by anatomists to a number of bladders adhering together, and communicating with each other.

The matter of the parenchyma, and the juices which exist in barks, vary extremely, and probably occasion most of the differences between them. Some, as oak bark, are characterized by their astringency, and contain tannin; others, as cinnamon, are aromatic, and contain an essential oil; others are bitter, as Jesuits bark; some are chiefly mucilaginous, others resinous, &c.

1. Bark of the cinchona floribunda, or quinquina of St. Domingo. This bark is in rolled pieces, six or seven inches long, and three or four lines in thickness. Its colour is greyish green externally, but within it exhibits different shades of green, purple, white, brown, &c. Its taste is bitter and disagreeable; its odour strong and unpleasant. It gives out nearly half its weight to water, provided it be boiled in a sufficient quantity of that liquid. The residue possesses the properties of woody fibre. The decoction of the bark has a reddish brown colour, and an extremely bitter taste. It deposits on cooling a blackish substance, soft and tenacious, which does not dissolve in cold water, though it is soluble in hot water and in alcohol. More of this substance precipitates as the liquor is evaporated. When the inspissated juice, freed from this precipitate, is mixed with alcohol, a quantity of gummy matter separates. When the black matter which precipitates as the decoction cools, is treated with hot alcohol, the greatest part of it is

dissolved; but a fine red powder remains mixed with some mucilage, which is easily separated by water. When the alcoholic solution is exposed to the air, it deposits light yellowish crystals of a saline nature. When mixed with water, white flakes are thrown down, which possess the properties of gluten; but the greatest part remains in solution. Thus the soluble part of the bark may be separated into five distinct substances; namely, gum, gluten, a red powder, a saline matter, and a brownish bitter substance, retained in solution by the diluted alcohol. The last is by far the most abundant. To it the peculiar qualities of the decoction of this bark are to be ascribed.

2. Bark of cinchona officinalis. This tree grows in Quito; it is confined to the high grounds, and when stripped of its bark soon dies. There are three different kinds of bark to be found in commerce, but whether they be all obtained from the same trees is not known; the contrary is probable. The following are the most remarkable of these varieties. Red Peruvian bark. -This bark is usually in large pieces, and is reducible to powder with more ease than the preceding. Its powder is reddish brown, and has a slightly bitter taste, with a good deal of astringency. Yellow Peruvian bark. This species of bark, first brought into use in this country about the year 1790, has not yet been subjected to a rigorous analysis; but its constituents do not appear, from the trials which have been made, to differ much from those of the red species. Pale Peruvian bark.-This is the common variety of the bark. It has not yet been subjected to a correct chemical analysis. Its taste is astringent and bitter, and very disagreeable. It is supposed to contain a bitter principle, tannin, extractive, and resin. Besides these, it contains a principle first pointed out by Seguin, and upon which Dr. Duncan, junior, published some experiments. It is distinguished by the property of precipitating infusion of galls; but as this property is common to a considerable number of substances, it is not sufficient alone to characterize it.

3. Bark of cinchona caribæa.-This bark was first made known by Dr. Wright, who published a botanical description of the tree, with a figure, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. 67, and an account of the medicinal properties of the bark in the London Medical Journal for 1787. A description of a tree to which the same name is given,