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short, wedged, the feathers very rigid. There are nine species according to Latham, but Gmelin enumerates eleven.

This genus of birds seems to hold the same place in the southern parts of the world as the awks do in the northern, and are by no means to be confounded the one with the other, however authors may differ in opinion in respect to this matter. The penguin is seen only in the temperate and frigid zones, on that side of the equator which it frequents; and the same is observed of the awk in the opposite latitudes; and neither of the genera has yet been observed within the tropics. The awk has true wings and quills, though small; the penguin mere fins only, instead of wings. This last has four toes on each foot; but the former only three. The penguin, while swimming, sinks quite above the breast; the head and neck only appearing out of the water, rowing itself along with its finny wings, as with oars; while the awk, in common with most other birds, swims on the surface. Several other circumstances peculiar to each might be mentioned; but we trust the above will prove fully sufficient to characterize this genus. The bodies of the penguin tribe are commonly so well and closely covered with feathers, that no wet can penetrate; and as they are in general excessively fat, these circumstances united secure them from the cold. They have often been found above seven hundred leagues from land; and frequently on the mountains of ice, on which they seem to ascend without difficulty, as the soles of their feet are very rough, and suited to the purpose.

Aptenodytes antarctica, is full 25 inches long, and weighs eleven or twelve pounds: it inhabits the south sea from 48° to the antarctic circle, and is frequently found on the ice mountains and islands on which it ascends. It is a numerous tribe; and they were found in great plenty in the Isle of Desolation.

The black-footed penguin is found in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, but particularly in Robbean or Penguin Isles, near Saldanic Bay. Like all the genus, this is an excellent swimmer and diver; but hops and flutters in a strange and aukward manner on the land, and, if hurried, stumbles perpetually; and frequently runs for some distance like a quadruped, making use of the wings instead of legs, till it can recover its upright posture; crying out at the same time like a goose, but in a much

hoarser voice. It is said to clamber some way up the rocks in order to make a nest, in doing which it has been observed to be assisted with the bill. The eggs are two, and esteemed at the Cape very delicious.

Aptinodytes chrysocome. This beauti length. The bill is three inches long; the ful species measures twenty-three inches in along on each side to the tip; the upper colour of it red, with a dark furrow running mandible is curved at the end, the under obtuse; irides of a dull red; the head, neck, back, and sides, are black; over each eye lengthens into a crest behind, of near four a stripe of pale yellow feathers, which inches in length; the feathers on each side of the head, above this stripe, are longer than the rest, and stand upward, while those of the crest are decumbent, but can be erected on each side at will; the wings, or rather fins, are black on the outside, edged with white; on the inside white; the breast, and all the under parts, white; the legs are orange; claws dusky. The female has a streak of pale yellow over the hind as in the male. Inhabits Falkland's eye, but it is not prolonged into a crest beIslands, and was likewise met with in Kirguelin's Land, or Isle of Desolation, as well as at Van Diemen's Land, and New Holland, particularly in Adventure Bay. Are Jacks, from their action of leaping quite out called Hopping Penguins, and Jumping of the water, on meeting with the least obstacle, for three or four feet at least; and indeed, without any seeming cause, do the same frequently, appearing chiefly to advance by that means. This species seems to have a greater air of liveliness in its countenance than others, yet is in fact a very stupid bird, so much so as to suffer itself to be knocked on the head with a stick, when on land. When angered, it erects its crest in a beautiful manner. These birds make their nests among those of the pelican tribe, living in tolerable harmony with them; and lay seldom more than one egg, which is white, and larger than that of a duck. They are mostly seen by themselves, seldom mixing with other penguins, and often met with in great numbers on the outer shores, where they have been bred. Are frequently so regardless as to suffer themselves to be taken by the hand. The females of this species lay their eggs in burrows, which they easily form of themselves with their bills, throwing out the dirt with their feet. In these holes the eggs are deposited on the bare earth. The general time of sitting is

in October; but some of the species, especially in the colder parts, do not sit till December, or even January. How long they sit is not known.

Aptenodytes magellanica, inhabits the Straits of Magellan, Staaten Land, Terra del Fuego, and the Falkland Isles; is a very numerous species, and is often seen by thousands, retiring by night to the highest parts of the islands. Its voice is not much unlike the braying of an ass. It is not a timid bird, for it will scarcely get out of the way of any one; but will rather attack and bite a person by the legs. They were killed by hundreds by the crews of Captain Cooke's expedition, and were found not unpalatable food. They often mix with the sea-wolves, among the rushes, burrowing in holes like a fox. When they swim, only the neck and shoulders appear out of the water, and they advance with such agility, that no fish seems able to follow them; if they meet with any obstacle, they leap four or five feet out of the water; and dipping into it again, continue their route. It is supposed by Latham that Penrose alludes to this species, of which he says, the chief curiosity is the laying their eggs; this they do in collective bodies, resorting in incredible numbers, to certain spots, which their long residence has freed from grass, and to which were given the name of towns. The eggs are rather larger than those of a goose, and are laid in pairs. They lay some time in November, driving away the albatrosses, which have hatched their young in turn be fore them.

nea.

Aptenodytes patachonica. This is the largest of the genus yet known, being four feet three inches in length; and stands erect at least three feet; the weight forty pounds. This species was first met with in Falkland Islands, and has also been seen in Kerguelen's Land, New Georgia, and New GuiM. Bougainville caught one; which soon became so tame as to follow and know the person who had care of it; it fed ́on flesh, fish, and bread, but after a time grew lean, pined away, and died. The chief food, when at large, is thought to be fish; the remains of which, as well as crabs, shellfish, and molluscæ, were found in the stomach. This species is the fattest of the tribe; most so in January, when they moult. Supposed to lay and sit in October, Are met with in the most deserted places. Their flesh is black, though not very unpalatable. This has been considered as a solitary species, but has now and then been VOL. I.

met with in considerable flocks. They are found in the same places as the papuan penguins, and not unfrequently mixed with them; but in general shew a disposition of associating with their own species. See Plate III. Aves. fig. 6.

APTERA, in the Linnæan system of zoology, the seventh and last order of Insects, the distinguishing characteristic of which is, that the insects comprehended in it have no wings. Of this order there are three divisions. In A. the insects are distinguished by having six legs; head distinct from the thorax: there are five genera; viz. the Lepisma,

Pediculus, Podura,

Pulex, Termes.

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This order comprehends all kinds of spiders, the lice of different animals, scorpions, and crabs. Upon these we may make a few general observations. The nets spread out by spiders to catch their prey, are composed of similar materials to the silk of the silk-worm, and are spun from the animal's body nearly in the same way. The cobwebs of the gossamer are frequently seen floating in the air in a sunny day, and are sometimes so abundant as to fall in showers. Each of these has been compared to a bal loon transporting the little acronaut that formed it, by means of its specific lightness. This species of spider attaching its first formed thread to the leaf or branch of a tree, by dropping to a certain distance, lengthens it, then climbs up the thread, and, dropping again, draws out another, and so on, till a sufficient quantity of this silk is formed to buoy the spider up in the air. He then separates the whole from the leaf, and running down to his seat at the bottom, trusts himself and his balloon to the mercy of the wind. By this method, these animals are transported from tree to tree, and from wood to wood, in search of food. The cobwebs that are spread over the surface of

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the grass, and that offer so beautiful an object to the eye early in the summer's morning, through the brilliancy of the dew-drops formed and suspended on their silken threads, and the reflexion of the sun's rays from each, are the work of another species of spiders.

The different kinds of lice are exceedingly numerous, almost every kind of animal having its particular sort of vermin. They are all carnivorous, or perhaps rather sanguivorous insects, living on the blood of other animals. Their eggs are all nits. The Scorpio genus abound in hot climates, and are troublesome in neglected places, and where cleanliness is not attended to. The crab tribes cast their shells every year, and are then in a soft, helpless state, unable to make resistance, and therefore at that time become the prey of many kinds of fish. Their shells afford a principal constituent in the formation of chalk-beds, and beds of marl, which are formed at the bottom of the sea. Specimens of entire shells are frequently met with in chalk-pits which are now many miles inland; and there is little doubt, that in a comminated state, they form a principal ingredient in most calcareous earth. Under each genus will be found an account of a few of the more remarkable species. See ACARUS, ARANEA, CANCER, SCORPIO, &c.

APUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the southern hemisphere, placed near the pole, between the Triangulum Australe, and the Chameleon, supposed to represent the bird of paradise. There are four stars of the sixth, three of the fifth, and four of the fourth magnitude, in the constellation Apus. Dr. Halley, in 1677, obrved the longitude and latitude of the stars in Apus, which Hevelius in his prodromus reduced with some alteration to the year 1700. P. Noel has also given the places of these stars, with their right ascensions and declinations for the year 1687, but his observations differ widely from those of Dr. Halley. Hevelius has represented the figure of Apus, and its stars, in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum, according to Halley's account; Noel has done the like according to his own account. Wolfius, with what justice we will not pretend to say, gives the preference to this

last.

AQUA fortis. Another name for NITRIC ACID, which see. This name is applied to denote the common nitric acid, used by workmen, which often contains a slight porsion of muriatic acid. See CHEMISTRY.

AQUA regia, another name for the nitra muriatic acid. See MURIATIC ACID.

AQUÆDUCT, a conduit of water, in architecture and hydraulics, is a construction of stone or timber, built on an uneven ground, to preserve the level of water, and convey it by a canal, from one place to another. Some of these aquæducts are visible, and others subterraneous. Those of the former sort are constructed at a great height, across vallies and marshes, and supported by piers and ranges of arches. The latter are formed by piercing the mountains, and constructing them below the surface of the earth. They are built of stone, brick, &c. and covered above with vaulted roofs or flat stones, serving to shelter the water from the sun and rain. Of these aquæducts, some are double, and others triple; that is, supported on two or three ranges of arches. Of the latter kind are the Pont-du-gard, in Languedoc, supposed to have been built by the Romans to carry water to the city of Nismes; that of Constantinople, and that which, according to Procopius, was constructed by Cosroes, King of Persia, near Petra, in Mingrelia, and which had three conduits in the same direction, each elevated above the other. Some of these aquæducts were paved, and others conveyed the water through a natural channel of clay; and it was frequently conducted by pipes of lead into reservoirs of the same metal, or into troughs of hewn stone. Aquæducts of every kind were reckoned among the wonders of ancient Rome; their great number, and the immense expense of bringing water 30, 40, or 60, and even 100 miles, either upon continued arches, or by means of other works, when it was necessary to penetrate mountains and rocks, may well astonish us. If, we consider the incredible quantity of water brought to Rome for the uses of the public, for fountains, baths, fish-ponds, privatehouses, gardens and country-seats; if we represent to ourselves the arches constructed at a great expense, and carried on through a long distance, mountains levelled, rocks cut through, and vallies filled up, it must be acknowledged that there is nothing in the whole world more wonderful. For 440 years, the Romans contented themselves with the waters of the Tiber, and of the wells and fountains in the city and its neighbourhood. But when the number of houses and inhabitants was considerably augmented, they were obliged to bring water from remote places by means of aquæducts.

Even Tiberius, Claudius, Caligula, and Caracalla, though in other respects not of the best character, took care of the city in this useful article. There are still to be seen in the country about Rome wonderful remains of the ancient aquæducts, some elevated above the ground by arches continued and raised one above the other, and others subteraneous, passing through rocks; such is that seen at Vicovaro, beyond Tivoli, in which a canal pierces a rock to the extent of more than a mile, and about five feet deep and four broad. At certain distances vents were provided, so that the water which was accidentally obstructed in its passage, might be discharged, till its ordinary passage was cleared; and in the canal of the aquæduct itself there were cavities, into which the water was precipitated, and where it remained till its mud was deposited; and ponds in which it might purify itself. In the construction of these aquæducts, there was a considerable variety: that called the Aqua Marcia had an arch of sixteen feet in diameter; it was constructed of three kinds of stone, and was formed with two canals, one above the other. The most elevated was supplied by the waters of the Tiverone, Anionovus, and the lowest by the Claudian water. The entire edifice was 70 Roman feet high. The arch of the aquæduct which brought to Rome the Claudian water, was constructed of beautiful hewn stone. This is represented by Pliny as the most beautiful of all that had been built for the use of Rome. It conveyed the water, through a vaulted canal, through the distance of 40 miles, and was so high that it supplied all the hills of the city. According to him, and the computation of Budæus, the charge of this work amounted to 1,385,500 crowns. This aquæduct was begun by Caligula, and finished by Claudius, who brought its waters from two springs, called Cæruleus and Curtius. Vespasian, Titus, Marcus Aurelius, and Antoninus Pius, repaired and extended it; it is now called Aqua Felice. The three chief aquæducts now in being are those of the Aqua Virginea, Aqua Felice, and Aqua Paulina. The first was repaired by Pope Paul IV. The second was constructed by Pope Sixtus V. and is called from the name which he assumed before he was exalted to the Papal throne. It proceeds from Palæstrina at the distance of twenty-two miles, and discharges itself at the Fontana di Termini, which was also built at his expense, and consists of three arches, sup

ported by four Corinthian pillars, and the water gushes out through three large apertures. Over the middle arch stands a beautiful statue of Moses striking the rock' with his rod; over another arch is a bassorelievo of Aaron leading the people to the miraculous springs in the wilderness; and the third exhibits Gideon trying his soldiers by their drinking water. Round it are four lions, two of marble, and the other two of oriental granite, said to be brought thither from a temple of Serapis. All the four lions eject water; and on the front is an inscription, importing that this aquæduct was begun in the first and completed in the third year of the Pontificate of Sixtus V. 1588. The third was repaired by Pope Paul V. in the year 1612. This divides itself into two principal channels, one of which supplies Mount Janiculus, and the other the Vatican and its neighbourhood. It is conveyed through the distance of thirty miles, from the district of Bracciano, and three of its five streams are not inferior to small rivers, and sufficient to turn a 'mill. The famous aquæducts of Constantinople, about six miles from the village of Belgrade, were built by Valentinian the First, Clearchus, being præfect, and afterwards repaired by Solyman the Magnificent, who exempted twelve adjacent Greek villages from the customary tribute of the empire, in consideration of their keeping these aquæducts in repair. Of these the most remarkable are three large and lofty fabrics, built over so many vallies betwixt the adjoining hills, of which the longest has many but less arches, and may possibly be the entire work of Solyman. The other two have the appearance of a more ancient and regular ar chitecture, consisting of two rows of arches one over the other; and those of the second were enclosed by pillars cut through the middle, so as to render the fabric both pas sable like a bridge, and useful for the conveyance of water. The more considerable of these two consists of only four large ar ches, each twenty yards long, and somewhat above twenty high, supported by oc tangular pillars of about 56 yards in cir cumference towards the bottom. For an inquiry into the nature and construction of the aquæducts of the Romans, see Governor Pownall's Notices and Descriptions of Antiquities of the Provincia Romana of Gaul, 4to. 1788. The aquæduct built by Lewis XIV. near Maintinon, for carrying the river Bure to Versailles, is perhaps the greatest now in the world. It is 7000 fathoms long,

and its elevation 2560 fathoms; containing China. The wood of this tree has been 242 arcades.

AQUARIUS, in astronomy, a constellation which makes the eleventh sign in the zodiac, marked thus, . It consists of 45 stars in Ptolomy's catalogue, of 41 in Tycho's, and in the Britannic catalogue, of 108. It was called Aquarius, or the Waterbearer, as some say, because, during the sun's motion through this sign, it is generally rainy weather.

AQUARTIA, in botany, a genus of the Tetrandia Monogynia class and order. Calyx campanulate; corol wheel-shaped, with linear segments; berry many-seeded. There are two species.

AQUATIC, in natural history, an appellation given to such things as live or grow in the water: thus we say, aquatic animals, aquatic plants, &c.

AQUEOUS humour, or the watery humour of the eye, it is the first and outermost, and that which is less dense than either the vitreous or crystalline. It is transparent and colourless like water, and fills up the space that lies between the cornea and the crystalline humour. See OPTICS.

AQUILA, the eagle, in ornithology. See FALCO.

AQUILA, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting of 15 stars in Ptolemy's catalogue, 19 in Tycho Brahe's, 42 in that of Hevelius, and 71 in Flamstead's; the principal star being Lucida Aquila, and is between the first and second magnitude.

AQUILARIA, in botany, a large tree affecting a lofty situation. Class Decandria Monogynia; cal. perianth one-leafed, permanent; tube bell-shaped; limb five-cleft; clefts ovate, acute, flat, spreading; cor. none; nectary one-leafed, pitcher-shaped, of the length of the tube of the calyx, half five-cleft; clefts bifid, obtuse; stam. filaments ten, alternating with the clefts of the nectary; anthers oblong, versatile; pist. germ ovate, superior; style, none; stigma, simple; per. capsule on a very short pedicle, obovate, woody, two-celled, two-valved, with the partition contrary, and bipartite; seeds solitary, oblong. There is but one species, Aquilaria ovata; leaves alternate, ovate, mucronate. This is a large tree covered with greyish bark. Its leaves are entire, smooth, veined, about eight inches long, and stand on short hairy footstalks. The flowers terminate the branches, on many-flowered peduncles. A native of the mountains of Malacca and Cochin

long used as a perfume; and was formerly an article of the materia medica, under the name of agallochum, lignum aloes, or aloes wood. This wood in its natural state is white and inodorous. That which possesses the peculiar aroma for which it is valued, is supposed to be the consequence of a diseased process in the tree, causing the oleaginous particles to stagnate and concrete into a resin in the inner parts of the trunk and branches, by which the natural appearance of the wood is altered, so as to become of a darker colour, and of a fragrant smell. At length the tree dies, and when splitten, the resinous part is taken out. The perfumes which this wood affords are highly esteemed by the oriental nations; and from the bark of the tree is made the common paper which the Cochin-Chinese use for writing; in the same manner the Japanese make use of the bark of a species of mulberry (morus papyrifera). This perfume is said to be useful in vertigo and palsy :· given in the form of powder, it is recommended to restrain vomitings and alvine fluxes. To us, however, it seems to contain little else than that camphoraceous matter common to many other vegetable substances. From its bitter taste it has the name of aloes, although no otherwise allied to it..

AQUILEGIA, columbine, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Pentagynia class of plants, having no calyx; the corolla consists of five plane, patent, equal peta's, of a lancelate, ovate figure; the nectaria are five in number; they are equal, and stand alternately with the petals; the fruit consists of five straight, parallel, cylindric, accuminated capsules, each of which consists of a single valve. The seeds are numerous, oval, carinated, and adhere to the suture. There are five species.

ARA, in astronomy, a southern constellation, consisting of eight stars.

ARABIS, in botany, wall-cross, a genus of the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class of plants, the calyx of which is a deciduous perianthium, consisting of four ovato-oblong, acute, gibbous, concave leaves; the corolla consists of four oval, patent, cruciform petals; the fruit is a very long compressed pod, containing several roundish compressed seeds. There are twenty-one species.

ARACHIS, in botany, ground-nut, a geus of the Diadelphia Decandria class of plants, the flower of which is papilionaceous,

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