chiefly of Roman monuments, with some Moorish remains. In the north is an extensive series of arches, formerly a Roman aqueduct. At Evora are well-preserved ruins of a temple of Diana, and an aqueduct ascribed to Quintus Sertorius, whose life was written by Plutarch. Among the antiquities of the middle ages may be noted the monastery of Batalha, in Estremadura, 60 miles north of Lisbon, which is allowed on all hands to be one of the noblest monuments of what is called the Gothic style of architecture. From this sketch of the antiquities of other nations we turn to those of our own; considering them under three divisions, as belonging, 1st, to England; 2d, to Scotland; and 3d, to Ireland. English antiquities fall into the following divisions, viz. those belonging to the primitive Celtic inhabitants; those of the Belgic colonies; those of the Romans; those of the Saxons; reliques of the Danes; and, lastly, Norman monuments. Few of these remains are thought to throw much light upon the history of the country: but being interesting and curious in themselves, they may, in this article, which is intended as a guide to the study, be briefly noticed. A radical mistake, according to Mr. Pinkerton, in the study of English antiquities has arisen from the confusion of the Celtic and Belgic languages and monuments. The Druids have deservedly attracted much curiosity and research; but it would be erroneous to impute to them, as is usual, the whole of our earliest remains. Cæsar speaks of Druidism as a recent institution, and if that be the case, it is not improbable that it originated from the Phoenician factories, established in wooden fortresses, the usual practice of commercial nations when trading with savage or barbarous people. The tenets correspond with what little exists of Phoenician mythology, and the missionaries of that refined people might have some zeal in their diffusion. Ancient authors, who give us all our information concerning the Druids, minutely describe their religious rites, but are totally silent concerning any monuments of stone being used among them. On the con. trary, they mention gloomy groves and spreading oaks as the only scenes of the Druidic ceremonies; nevertheless antiquaries have inferred that Stonehenge is a Druidic monument, though it be situated in an extensive plain, where not a vestige of wood appears, and where the very soil is reputed to be adverse to its vegetation, It would be a vain effort to attempt to discriminate the remains of the earliest inhabitants from those of the Druidic period, and if the opinion of the last-mentioned author is to be regarded as binding, there is no foundation for any sound or real knowledge on the subject. The following have been esteemed as the monuments of the Druids: -1. Single stones erect. 2. Rock idols and pierced stones. 3. Rocking-stones, used as ordeals. 4. Sepulchres of two, three, or more stones. 5. Circular temples, or rather circles of erect stones. 6. Barrows, or tumuli. 7. Cromlechs, or heaps of stones. 8. Rockbasons, imagined to have been used in Druidic expiations. 9. Caves, used as places of retreat in time of war. But as most of these relics may also be found in Germany and Scandinavia, it is difficult to say whether they are Gothic or Celtic; and as the Germans had no Druids, we cannot with any degree of certainty bestow the name of Druidic upon such monuments. It is highly probable, that the earliest inhabitants, as is ever the practice in the infancy of society, made use of wood, not of stone, in their religious as well as in their domestic erections. If we survey the various savage regions of the globe, we shall seldom, if ever, perceive the use of stone; and it is certainly just to infer, that the savages of the west were not more skilful than those of the east, nor those of the old continents and islands than those of the new. But as many of these monuments are found in Germany, Scandinavia, and Iceland, and as the Icelandic writers in particular often indicate their origin and use, which are unknown in the Celtic records, there is every reason to attribute them to a more advanced stage of society, when the Belgic colonies introduced agriculture, and a little further progress in the rude arts of barbarism. The nature of this work will not admit a formal investiga tion of such topics, but a few remarks may be offered on Stonehenge, a stupendous monument of barbaric industry. Inigo Jones, in attempting to prove that it is Roman, only evinces that no talents can avail when science is wanting, and that antiquities require a severe and peculiar train of study. Doctor Stukely, a visionary writer, assigns Stonehenge to the Druids; while Dr. Charlton, perceiving that such monuments are found in Denmark, ascribed it to the Danes. If the latter had considered, that the Belgæ were a Gothic nation of similar language and institutions, he might with more justice have extended its antiquity. From the Trojan war. In later times, a large single stone erected was esteemed a sufficient memorial: such single stones also sometimes appear as monuments of remarkable battles, or merely as boundaries. The caves are familiar to most nations in an early state of society. The Belgic relics are followed by those of the Romans, which are mostly ob Icelandic writers we learn, that such circles were called domh-ringr, that is literally doom-ring, or circle of judgment, being the solemn places where courts were held of all kinds and dignities, from the national coun cil down to the baronial court, or that of a common proprietor of land, for adjusting disputes between his villani and slaves. The magnificence of Stonehenge loudly projects of mere curiosity, and rarely throw the nounces that it was the supreme court of the smallest light on the page of history. Amnation, equivalent to the Champs de Mars phitheatres are said to be still visible at Silet de Mai of the Franks, where the king and chester, in Hampshire, and some other chiefs assembled in the circle, and the men places. The Roman castle at Richborough, capable of arms in the open plain; nor is it the ancient Rutupiæ, in Kent, presents conimprobable that the chiefs ascended the siderable remains of a massy wall cemented transverse stones, and declared their re- with surprising firmness. The Roman ruins solves to the surrounding crowd, who, in the in this country are commonly composed of description of Tacitus, dissented by loud stone or flint, with strata of flat bricks at murmurs, or applauded by clashing their considerable intervals. The Mosaic paveshields. This idea receives confirmation ments, hypocausts, &c. are generally the refrom the circumstance that the Belgæ, pecu- mains of the villas of opulent Romans, scatliarly so called, as being the chief and ruling tered over the country. The greatest numcolony of that people, were seated in the ber of Roman inscriptions, altars, &c. has surrounding province, and Sorbiodunum, been found in the north, along the great now Old Sarum, was their capital city. $i- frontier wall, which extended from the milar circles of stone, but far inferior in size, western sea to the estuary of Tyne. This are found in many parts of Great Britain vast wall is justly esteemed the most imporand Ireland, and several undoubtedly as tant remain of the Roman power in Englate as the Danish inroads and usurpations, land, as that of Antonius is in Scotland. The the practice being continued by that people extent was about 70 miles, and its construcat least till their conversion to Christianity, tion, forts, &c. have been illustrated by the in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Some labour of several antiquaries. Numerous of the smallest, as we learn from the nor- are the more minute relics of the Romans in thern antiquaries, were merely places of England, as coins, gems, weapons, ornafamily sepulture. At a later period, the ments, and the like; among which, however, circles of judgment, which had been pol- the silver dish belonging to the Duke of luted with human sacrifices and other Pagan Northumberland deserves especial mention. rites, were abandoned, and the great courts One of the grand causes of the civilization were held on what were called moot-hills, or introduced by that ruling people into the hills of meeting, many of which still exist in conquered states was the highways, which the British dominions and in the Nether- form, indeed, the first germ of national inlands. They commonly consist of a central dustry, and without which neither commerce eminence, on which sat the judge and his nor society can make any considerable proassistants; beneath was an elevated plat- gress. Conscious of this truth, the Romans form for the parties, their friends, and con- seem to have lent particular attention to purgators, who sometimes amounted to a the construction of roads in the distant prohundred or more; and this platform was vinces; and those of England, which may surrounded with a trench, to secure it from still be traced in various ramifications, prethe access of the mere spectators. Of the sent a lasting monument of the justice of other monuments of this period a more brief their conceptions, the extent of their views, consideration must suffice. When a moand the utility of their power. A grand narch or distinguished general was buried, a trunk, as it may be called, passed from the barrow or hillock was erected to preserve south to the north, and another to the west, his name and memory to future ages; the with branches in almost every direction that size depending on the reputation of the per- general convenience and expedition could son, which attracted a smaller or larger num- require. What is called the Watling-street, ber of operators. Such monuments are led from Richborough, in Kent, the ancient very ancient, and even to this day denote Rutupiæ, N.W. through London to Chester. the sepulchres of some of the heroes of the The Ermin-street passed from London to Lincoln, thence to Carlisle, and into Scot-land, the name being supposed to be corrupted from Herman, which means warrior, as the chief wars lay in the north. The Fosse Way is supposed to have led from Bath and the western regions, N, E. till it joined the Ermin-street. The last celebrated road was the Ikenild, or Ikneld, supposed to have extended from near Norwich, S. W. into Dorsetshire. The Saxon antiquities in England are chiefly edifices, sacred or secular; many churches remain, which were altogether, or for the most part, constructed in the Saxon period, and some are extant of the tenth, or perhaps the ninth century. The vaults erected by Grimbald, at Oxford, in the reign of Alfred, are justly esteemed curious relics of Saxon architecture. Mr. King has ably illustrated the remains of the Saxon castles. The oldest seem to consist of one solitary tower, square or hexagonal: one of the rudest specimens is Coningsburg Castle, in Yorkshire; but as that region was subject to the Danes till the middle of the tenth century, it is probably Danish. Among the smaller remains of Saxon art, may be mentioned the shrines for preserving relics, which some suppose to present the diminutive rudiments of what is styled the Gothic architecture; and the illuminated manuscripts, which often afford curious memorials of the state of manners and knowledge. The Danish power in England, though of considerable duration in the north, was in the south brief and transitory. The camps of that nation were circular, like those of the Belgæ and Saxons, while those of Roman armies are known by the square form: and it is believed, that the only distinct relics of the Danes are some castles to the north of the Humber, and a few stones with Runic inscriptions. The monuments styled Norman, rather to distinguish their epoch than from any information that Norman architects were employed, are reputed to commence after the conquest, and to extend to the fourteenth century, when what is called the rich Gothic began to appear, which in the sixteenth century was supplanted by the mixed, and this in its turn yielded to the Grecian. In general the Norman style far exceeds the Saxon in the size of the edifices, and the decoration of the parts. The churches become more extensive and lofty, and though the windows retain the circular arch, they are larger and more diversified; the circular doors are festooned with more freedom and elegance; and uncouth animals begin to yield to wreaths of leaves and flowers. The solitary keep, or tower, of the Saxon castle is surrounded with a double wall, inclosing courts and dwellings of large extent, defended by turrets and double ditches, with a separate watch-tower, called the Barbican. Among others, the cathedrals of Durham and Winchester may be mentioned as venerable monuments of Anglo-Norman architecture; and the castles are numerous and well known. What is called the Gothic, or pointed arch, is generally supposed to have first appeared in the thirteenth century, and in the next it became universal in religious edifices. The windows diffused to great breadth and loftiness, and divided into branching interstices, enriched with painted glass; the clustering pillars, of excessive height, spreading into various fret-work on the roof, constitute, with decorations of smaller note, what is called the rich Gothic style, visible in the chapel of King's college, at Cambridge, and many other grand specimens in this kingdom. The spire corresponds with the interior, and begins about the thirteenth century to rise boldly from the ancient tower, and diminish from the sight in a gradation of pinnacles and ornaments. We now proceed to Scotland, the original population of which is supposed upon good authority to consist of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Chersonese. About two centuries before the Christian æra, the Cimbri seem to have been driven to the south of Scotland by the Caledonians or Picti, a Gothic colony from Norway. The Cimbri, a congenerous people with the Welch, continued to hold the country south of the two firths of Forth and Clyde; but from the former region they were soon expelled by the Picti, who, in this corner, became subject for a time to the Anglo-Saxon kings of Bernicia. On the west, the Cumraig kingdom of Strath Clyde continued till the tenth century, when it became subject to the kings of North Britain; who at the same time extended their authority, by the permission of the English monarchs, over the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, which abounding with hills and fortresses on the south and east, were little accessible to the English power; and while the Danes possessed the country to the north of Humber, could yield little revenue or support to the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. From the Picti originates the population of the Lowlands of Scotland; the Lowlanders having been in all ages a distinct people from those of the western Highlands, though the Irish clergy endeavoured to render their language, which was the most smooth and cultivated of the two, the polite dialogue of the court and superior classes. About the year of Christ 258, the Dalriads of Bede, the Attacotti of the Roman writers, passed from Ireland to Argyleshire, and became the germ of the Scottish Highlanders, who speak the Irish or Celtic language, while the Lowlanders have always used the Scandinavian or Gothic. In reference to the antiquities of the country, Mr. Pinkerton divides the early history into seven distinct periods, viz. 1. The original population of Scotland by the Cimbri, and by the Picti. 2. The entrance of Agricola into Scotland, and the subsequent conflicts with the Romans, till the latter abandoned Britain. 3. The settlement of the Dalriads or Attacotti, in Argyleshire, about the year 258, and their repulsion to Ireland about the middle of the fifth century. 4. The commencement of what may be called a regular history of Scotland, from the reign of Drust, A. D. 414. 5. The return of the Dalriads, A. D. 503, and the subsequent events of Dalryadic story. 6. The introduction of Christianity among the Caledonians, in the reign of Brudi II, A. D. 565. 7. The union of the Picti and Attacotti, under Kenneth, A. D. 843, after which greater civilization began to take place, and the history becomes more authentic. The monuments of antiquity belonging to these epochs, may be considered in the following order. Of the first epoch, no monuments can exist, except those of the tumular kind; and it is impossible to ascertain the period of their formation. The remains of the Roman period in North Britain chiefly appear in the celebrated wall built in the reign of Antoninus Pius, between the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the ruins of which many curious inscriptions have been found. Another striking object of this epoch, was a small edifice vulgarly called Arthur's Oven, which seems rightly to have been regarded by some antiquaries, as a small temple dedicated to the god Terminus, probably after the erection of the wall of Antoninus, for we are not to conceive these walls were the absolute lines beyond which the Romans possessed no territory; while, on the contrary, in the pacific intervals, the garrisons along the wall may have claimed the forage of the exterior fields; and the stream of Carron, beyond which this chapel stood, may have been considered as a necessary supply of water. The remains of the wall and forts, and other Roman antiquities in Scotland, particularly their camps and stations, many of which are remarkably entire, are ably illustrated in a late publication of General Roy; but the ingenious author has perhaps too implicitly followed a common antiquarian error, in ascribing all these camps, stations, &c. to Agricola, while they may be more justly assigned to Lollius Urbicus, A. D. 140, or to the Emperor Severus, A. D. 207, espe-. cially indeed, to the latter, for the Emperor's appearance, in person, to conduct two campaigns, probably as far as Inverness, must have occasioned the erection of works more eminent and durable than usual, the soldiers being excited by the animating controul of a military monarch. Constantius Chlorus also, A. D. 306, made a long progress into Scotland, if we trust the panegyrists. Nay, in the reign of Domitian, Bolanus, as we learn from Statius the poet, erected several works in Britain, probably in the north; so that it is idle to impute these remains to any one author: but to a judicious eye, the claims of Lollius Urbicus, and of Severus, seem preferable. The most northerly Roman camp yet discovered, is that near the source of the River Ythan, Aberdeenshire; periphery about two English miles. A smaller station has also been observed at Old Meldrum, a few miles to the S. E. Roman roads have been traced a considerable way in the east of Scotland, as far as the county of Angus, affording some evidence of the existence of the province Vespasiana; but the chief remains are within the wall. A hypocaust was also discovered near Perth, and another near Musselburgh, so that there was probably some Roman station near the Scottish capital. The smaller remains of Roman antiquity found in Scotland, as coins, utensils, &c. are numerous. With the fourth epoch may be said to commence the Pikish monuments of antiquity. The tombs it would be difficult to discriminate from those of the first epoch; but as the Caledonian kings, when converted to Christianity, held their chief residence at Inverness, the singular hill in its vicinity, presenting the form of a boat reversed, may, perhaps, be a monument of regal sepulture. The places of judgment among the Gothic nations, or what are now styled Druidic temples, are numerous; and there is a remarkable one in the Isle of Lewis, where, probably, the monarchs resided in the most early times; but this, perhaps, rather belongs to the Norwegian settlement in the ninth century. Some of these monuments are of small circuit, and such are sometimes found at no great distance from each other; as they were not only sometimes erected merely as temples to Odin, Thor, Freyga, and other Gothic deities, but every chief, or lord of a manor, having jurisdiction over many servants and slaves, such small courts became places of necessary awe. The houses seem to have been entirely of wood or turf; but in some spots singular ex. cavations are found rudely lined with stone: these are called Weems, and it is likely that they were always adjacent to the wooden residence of some chief, and were intended as depositories of stores, &c. the roofs being too low for comfortable places of refuge, The stations and camps of the natives are distinguished by their round form, while those of the Romans belong to the square, Under the next epoch it would be difficult to discover any genuine remains of the Dalriads. The houses, and even the churches, were constructed in wattle-work; and the funeral monuments were cairns or heaps of stones. It is probable that Christianity did not immediately dissolve ancient prejudices, and that even the Atticottic kings were buried in this rude manner; for the genuine chronicles do not affirm that they were conveyed to Hyona, or Ilcolmkill; and the sepulchres there shewn of Irish and Norwegian kings must be equally fabulous. To the sixth epoch may probably belong a chapel or two, still remaining in Scotland, for Bede informs us that Nethan III. A. D. 715, obtained architects from Ceolfrid, abbot of Jarrow and Weremouth, to build a church in his dominions, probably at Abernethy; but the round tower there remaining seems of more recent origin. About the year 830, Ungust II. founded the church of St. Andrew; and the chapel called that of St. Regulus, (who seems unknown in the Roman calendar) may, perhaps, claim even this antiquity. It is probable that these sacred edifices in stone were soon followed by the erection of those rude round piles, without any cement, called Piks-houses: yet they may more properly belong to the seventh epoch, when the Danes may share in the honour of the erection, for such edifices have been traced in Scandinavia. They seem to have consisted of a vast hall, open to the sky in the centre, while the cavities in the wall present incommodious recesses for beds, &c. These buildings are remarkable, as displaying the first elements of the Gothic castle; and the castle of Coningsburg in Yorkshire forms an easy transition. The engraved obelisks found in Forres, and in other parts of Scotland, have been ascribed to the Danish ravagers, who had not time for such erections. They are, probably, monuments of signal events, raised by the king or chiefs; and as some are found in Scandinavia, as recent as the fifteenth century, it is probable that many of the Scottish obelisks are far more modern than is generally imagined. We are next to consider the antiquities of Ireland. The original population of this country passed from Gaul, and was afterwards increased by their brethren the Guydil from England. About the time that the Belgæ seized on the south of England, it appears that kindred Gothic tribes passed to the south of Ireland. These are the Firbolg of the Irish traditions, and appear to have been the same people whom the Romans denominated Scoti, after they had emerged to their notice by not only extend, ing their conquests to the north and east in Ireland, but had begun to make maritime excursions against the Roman provinces in Britain. But Ireland had been so much crowded with Celtic tribes, expelled from the continent and Britain, by the progress of the German Goths, that the Belgæ almost lost their native speech and distinct character; and from intermarriages, &c. became little distinguishable from the original population, except by superior ferocity, for which the Scoti, or those who affected a descent from the Gothic colonies, were remarkable: while the original Gael seem to have been an innocent and harmless people. The epochs in Ireland to which its antiquities are referrable are the following: 1. The first historical epoch of Ireland is its original population by the Celtic Gauls, and the subsequent colonization by the Belga. 2. The maritime excursions of the Scoti against the Roman provinces in Britain. 3. The conversion of Ireland to Christianity in the fifth century, which was followed by a singular effect; for while the mass of the people retained all the ferocity of savage manners, the monasteries produced many men of such piety and learning, that Scotia or Ireland became cele brated all over Christendom. 4. This lustre was diminished by the ravages of the Scandinavians, which began with the ninth century, and can hardly be said to have ceased when the English settlement commenced. The island had been split into numerous principalities, or kingdoms as they were styled; and though a chief monarch |