to each other without leaving numberless superfluous vacuities. If the cells were made square or triangular, this last objection, indeed, would be removed; but besides that a greater quantity of wax would have been required, the shape would have been inconvenient to a cylindrical-bodied insect. All these difficulties are obviated by the adoption of hexagonal cells, which are admirably fitted to the form of the insect, at the same time that their sides apply to each other without the smallest vacancies. Another important saving in materials is gained by making a common base serve for two sets of cells. Much more wax as well as room would have been required had the combs consisted of a single stratum only. But this is not all. The base of each cell is not an exact plane, but is usually composed of three pieces in the shape of a rhombus, and placed in such a manner as to form a hollow pyramid. This structure, it may be observed, imparts a greater degree of strength, and still keeping the solution of the problem in view, gives the greatest capacity with the smallest expenditure of material. This has actually, indeed, been ascertained by mathematical measurement and calculation. Maraldi, the inventor of glass hives, determined, by minutely measuring these angles, that the greater were 109° 28', and the smaller 70° 32'; and M. Réaumur, being desirous to know why these particular angles are selected, requested M. Koenig, a skillful mathematician, without informing him of his design, or telling him of Maraldi's researches, to determine by calculation what ought to be the angles of a six-sided cell, with a concave pyramidal base, formed of three similar and equal rhomboid plates, so that the least possible matter should enter into its construction. By employing what geometricians denominate the infinitesimal calculus, M. Koenig found that the angles should be 109° 26' for the greater, and 70° 34' for the smaller, or about twosixtieths of a degree, more or less, than the actual angles made choice of by bees, a surprising agreement between the solution of the problem and actual measure! The equality of inclination in the angles has also been said to facilitate the construction of the cells. Besides the saving of wax effected by the form of the cells, the bees adopt another economical plan suited to the same end. They compose the bottoms and sides of wax of very great tenuity, not thicker than a sheet of writing paper. But as walls of this thickness at the entrance would be perpetually injured by the ingress and egress of the workers, they prudently make the margin at the opening of each cell three or four times thicker than the walls. Moreover, the sides. and bottom of each cell are actually double, or, in other words, each cell is a distinct, separate, and, in some measure, an independent. structure agglutinated only to the neighboring cells; and when the agglutinating substance is destroyed, each cell may be entirely separated from the rest.

It is not precisely known how long the combs will hold good, for this is a very different thing from the longevity of the bees. It is thought by some, however, that they soon wear out, owing to the cell-walls being thickened by the coatings of shells left by the nymphs; but when the hives are kept dry, they have been known to last fifteen

or twenty years. This shows that much may be gained, if the combs are good, in putting fresh swarms into deserted hives. Those who object to this should bear in mind that in winter a large portion of the combs are unoccupied by the bees, and therefore will remain unharmed.

Although some authors pretend to have revealed the mystery of comb-making, it may be safely stated that the manner in which bees construct their cells is unknown, except that they are made of wax, which is secreted in a form of an exudation, through the segments, or rings, beneath their bodies, and subsequently hardens into scales. Starting at the top of the hive, immediately after their settlement, they begin their first comb, which, when not more than half the size of a man's hand, may already contain both a little honey and a few eggs. Then, another and another comb are begun, the centre ones always being in advance, until the whole number reaches to within half an inch of the bottom board, or floor, space enough being left for ventilation and the entrance and egress of the bees to and from the combs. A common hive may contain seven or eight divisions of comb, generally arranged parallel to each other, which a strong colony, under favorable circumstances, will construct in two weeks.

Besides the wax, the bees make use of another substance collected from resiniferous trees, and called "propolis," or bee glue. It is more tenacious, of a resinous and glutinous nature, a reddish-brown color, and of an agreeable aroma, especially when heated or rubbed. This matter is employed for fastening the combs, stopping the crevices in the hive, excluding insects, moisture and light. Being elastic, it will expand on warm days when the wood of the hive opens from the effect of the heat, but in frosty weather it contracts and hardens like resin.

As

During summer, and sometimes until late in autumn, the workers are engaged in collecting or preparing another substance called beebread, which is of a reddish-yellow or pale color, varying according to the flowers from which it is obtained, and is thought by some to be a peculiar kind of pollen, while others suppose it to consist of the ordinary pollen combined with honey, elaborated, perhaps, through the agency of water, by some unknown process by the bees. before observed, it is gathered and deposited for the especial purpose of supporting the young larvæ while helpless in their cells. Combined with heat, it is this material which discolors the much-admired works of the bee-rendering the wax and honey yellow, and, in time, the whole combs black. Besides, where this substance is stored by the workers, there, or in that part of the hive, will the queen lay her eggs and there, of course, are propagated her young. And as animated Nature advances to perfection, so rises the interior temperature of the combs, say from 90° to 120° and even to 130° F., or until an almost suffocating heat obliges the tenants to leave their homes.

Honey, which seems designed by provident Nature to please the palate and mitigate distress, consists principally of the richest extract collected by bees from the cavities and petals of flowers, although

it is sometimes gathered, in the form of honey-dew, from the leaves of trees and shrubs, at a period of drought, or in autumn when there are few flowers in bloom. A portion of the honey received by the bee into its "honey-bag," or first stomach, is passed into the second stomach, while the surplus is disgorged from its mouth into the cells for sustaining the colony in winter or during rainy days. They commence by filling the upper part or rear of the hive first, on account of their remoteness from the entrance, which affords a greater security from pillage by other insects or swarms. During severe cold weather, say at a temperature in the hive of 40° F., or lower, it has been asserted that they exist nearly or quite in a state of torpidity, and eat very little, if any, honey. As it is the nature of these insects to maintain an interior warmth of 60° or 70° and upwards, to invigorate and cause an increase of population, it is necessary that they should consume a considerable amount of honey in order to produce that degree of temperature by their animal heat. Again, at 60° and above, they require much less honey to keep up the internal warmth of the hive than below that degree, the drones being then adequate to the discharge of this essential function; and during the hottest weather in summer it is believed that they necessarily consume but very little honey for that purpose.

In the opinion of modern writers, honey, while in the stomach of the bee, does not undergo any elaboration with other substances, but is disgorged through the mouth in the same condition as before it was swallowed. The best sort is of a thick consistence, and whitish color, inclining to yellow, possessing an agreeable smell and a pleasant

Those kinds collected from the flowers of lavender, white clover, and mignonette, are delightfully fragrant, and are produced by these plants in great abundance; the flowers of the two latter continuing in bloom during summer and autumn, and affording both pollen and honey the whole season. That made from the blossoms of the raspberry, whortleberry, and buckwheat, is peculiarly grateful, although the latter is objected to by some on account of its dark color, and in not being quite so pure and fine. The famous Hyblæan honey of the ancients, it is stated, was the essence of the flowers of the marjoram, (Origanum vulgare,) and thyme, (Thymus serpyllum,) which grew wild in great abundanee. It is no less singular than true that, while one kind of honey is of the finest flavor, delicious to the taste, pure and transparent, another is of an entirely different consistence, dark and greenish in color, tenacious and bitter; and that a third variety has been known to produce deleterious effects which, in some instances, seriously endangered human life. The rhododendron, which was known to the ancient inhabitants of Pontus, who were well acquainted with the poisonous qualities of its flowers, had such influence on the honey of the country that the Romans would not receive it in tribute, but required the Greeks to pay them a double portion in wax in lieu of it. The honey from the Azalea pontica, which grew in the same regions as the rhododendron, possessed similar properties. The flowers of the American rose bay (Rhododendron maximum) are likewise known to produce unwholesome honey, as well as

those of the great laurel, (Kalmia latifolia,) the dwarf laurel, (Kalmia angustifolia,) and the Jamestown weed, (Datura stramonium, ) all of which should be extirpated from the vicinity of establishments devoted to the culture of bees.

There are three periods of the year in which those who keep bees may take the honey, but it is seldom taken more than twice, and generally but once; namely, in May or June, July or August, September or October. That taken in these seasons will be found to vary extremely in quality, and therefore should be kept apart. Of these, the spring honey is by far the best, and should be the only kind used medicinally, as the bees are in full vigor when they collect it, and the flowers from which it is gathered are in their most perfect bloom. Next in value is summer honey, while that of autumn is poor and weak, and will soon spoil.

Some persons object to keeping bees because they injure flowers, pierce fruits, and are apt to sting. It is said also that they perforate tubular flowers to get at their sweets-a charge denied by Nature in not providing the bee with a suitable instrument for the performance of such an act. The blame, with propriety, could be laid on the humble-bee, which, if it cannot reach the honey by the natural opening of the flower, will often make an aperture at the base of the corolla, or even in the calix itself, to insert its proboscis in the very place where the nectar is stored. It is true, that, in hot weather, when flowers fail, the honey-bee attacks fruit, or rather sips what is soft and passing to decay, or falling a prey to wasps; but, unlike the wasp and humble-bee, it seldom stings while in quest of food, unless harshly used. Instead of being injurious to vegetation, bees often render much service to the husbandman in assisting the impregnation of plants; and, possibly, we are indebted to them for many of the new varieties of fruits and flowers which we possess, by this very means. As this branch of rural industry has been impeded in this country for many years by prejudices arising from the injuries supposed to be committed by bees in gardens, orchards, and vineyards, as well as the losses resulting from injudicious management, and the ravages of the bee-moth, an earnest appeal is here made to the interest and patriotism of the intelligent agriculturists and bee-keepers of the United States for their zealous co-operation in establishing and encouraging bee-schools and publications, with the view of improving and increasing the culture of this delightful pursuit. With a genial climate and a richly-varied vegetation, it may be successfully prosecuted on a scale corresponding to the expanse and fertility of our territory, and, with a due degree of knowledge and enterprise, it cannot fail to be another source of national wealth.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1 denotes an egg magnified; 2, an egg as laid in the bottom of a cell; 3, a young larva at the bottom of a cell; 4, a full-grown larva; 5, a pupa; 6, a drone, or male (perfect insect;) 7, a queen (perfect insect ;) 8, a neuter, or working-bee; 9, cells of working-bees;

10, cells of drones; 11, cell of a queen; 12, proboscis and mandibles, magnified; 13, the sting and its appendages; 14, the ovigerous tubes, spermatheca, and their appendages; 15, the honey-bag, crop, or sucking stomach, and second stomach.

D. J. B.

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE COTTON PLANT.

BY TOWNEND GLOVER.

In pursuing the investigation of the characteristics and habits of the insects injurious or beneficial to agriculture, with the view of ascertaining how far they are destructive or advantageous to our crops, I feel called upon to give an account of some of the impediments and difficulties I have had to contend with since I entered the service of government, which I trust will be a sufficient apology for the apparent delay in making a final report. It is true, that, in the course of my rambles, I have experienced many of the pleasures incident to the life of a naturalist, while gazing with admiration and wonder upon the varied forms, colors, and motions of the insect tribes, or while noting their fecundity, modes of generation, metamorphoses, instincts, and distribution-the inimitable mechanism provided by Nature for locomotion, defence, and even for preparing themselves habitations, as well as for obtaining the food adapted to their habits, their mouths. being constructed upon purely mechanical principles, in some instances having jaws armed with sharp penetrating hooklets for seizing and securing active and struggling prey; keen-edged scissors for clipping and dividing the softer parts of plants and their fruits; files, saws, and gouges for rasping, cutting, and excavating wood; while in other cases they are provided with awls and lancets, for tapping the skin, and syphons or sucking tubes for imbibing fluids; some devouring the leaves of vegetables or feeding upon grasses and succulent plants; others destroying timber and the bark or roots of trees; while another class, more delicately organized, is content in extracting the juices of the expanding buds, or in sipping the honeyed fluids from the cups of flowers. Again, many tribes are carnivorous, and so far are beneficial. Being armed with formidable weapons of destruction, they carry on a constant warfare with their own or other species, which they actually destroy by depositing their eggs in their flesh or on their skins, where they undergo the transformation peculiar to their race, feeding upon the rich juices of their bodies, thus exhibiting most beautiful illustrations of harmony, contrivance, and design. On the other hand, notwithstanding I have enjoyed these pleasures, I have encountered many hardships, difficulties, and dangers, in exposing myself to unhealthy regions, in sickly seasons, where I necessarily performed tedious journeys, in which I was steamed or scorched by the hot sun during the day, and drenched by