very beautiful maiden, and the only one of the three sisters who was mortal. But she having become a mother by Neptune in one of Minerva's temples, that virgin goddess was so affronted, that she changed Medusa's hair into serpents, which gave her so fearful an appearance that whoever looked on her was turned into stone. Medusa was killed by Perseus (q. v.), and her head was afterwards placed in the shield of Minerva. Various explanations have been given of the myth both by the ancients and the moderns, but no one in particular can be said to be satisfactory.-Compare Levezow, Ueber die Entwickelung des Gorgonenideals in der Poesie und bildenden Kunst der Alten (Berlin, 1833).

GORGO'NIA, a genus of zoophytes (Anthozoa), allied to Alcyonium (q. v.). The whole structure (polype-mass) is rooted and branching, consisting of a horny central axis with a polypiferous flesh, which when dried becomes a friable crust full of calcareous spicules. The hard stem is composed of concentric layers, probably formed in succession by consolidation of the fleshy substance. The stem is usually brown or black, whilst the flesh, or even the dried crust, often exhibits colours of great brilliancy. The polypes have eight tentacles. Several species of G. are rare British zoophytes; but the species most generally known is G. flabellum,

Gorgonia (Gorgonia flabellum).

or the Flabellum Veneris, also called the Sea-fan, a tropical species, often brought home as a curiosity from the West Indies, which exhibits in a striking manner the flat shape, more or less characteristic of this genus, and of the family Gorgoniada.

GO'RHAM CONTROVERSY. The Gorham controversy arose out of the refusal of Henry Philpott, Bishop of Exeter, to institute the Rev. Cornelius Gorham, formerly fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge, and then vicar of St Just-in-Penrith, to the vicarage of Brampford Speke, on his presentation thereto by the Lord Chancellor. The alleged ground of this refusal was, that after examination the bishop found Mr Gorham to be of unsound doctrine as to the efficacy of the Sacrament of Baptism, inasmuch as he held that spiritual regeneration is not given or conferred in that sacrament, and in particular, that infants are not made therein members of Christ and the children of God,' as the catechism and formularies of the church declare them to be. The case was brought before the Arches Court of Canterbury, which decided (1849) that bap tismal regeneration is the doctrine of the Church

of England, and that Mr Gorham maintained doctrines on the point opposed to those of the church, and that consequently the bishop had shewn sufficient cause for his refusal to institute, and that the appeal must be dismissed with costs. From this decision, Mr Gorham appealed to the judicial committee of Privy Council. The committee complained that the bishop's questions were intricate and entangling, and that the answers were not given plainly and directly. Their decision was in substance as follows; and it must be noted what points they undertook to decide, and what not. The court declared that it had no jurisdiction to settle matters of faith, or to determine

what ought, in any particular, to be the doctrine of the Church of England, its duty being only to consider what is by law established to be her doctrine upon the legal construction of her articles and formularies. It appeared that very different opinions as to the sacrament of baptism were held by the promoters of the Reformation; that differences of opinion on various points left open were always thought consistent with subscription to the articles; and also, that opinions in no important particular to be distinguished from Mr Gorham's had been maintained without censure by many eminent prelates and divines. Without expressing any opinion as to the theological accuracy of Mr Gorham's opinions, the court decided that the judgment of the Arches Court should be reversed. Mr Gorham was accordingly instituted to Brampford Speke. During the two years that the suit was pending, the theological question was discussed with all degrees of ability and acrimony in sermons and pamphlets; and it was expected that if the judgment had gone the other way, a large body of the evangelical clergy, who for the most part hold views more or less in accordance with those of Mr Gorham, would have seceded from the church.

GORILLA (Troglodytes Gorilla), a great African ape, generally referred by naturalists to the same genus with the chimpanzee, although Professor Isidore Geoffroy St Hilaire has attempted to establish for it a separate genus. It has received the name by which it is now known in consequence of its being supposed to be the same animal which is mentioned in the Periplus of Hanno the Carthaginian navigator, who visited the tropical parts of the west coast of Africa about the year 350 B.C., although it is by no means certain that the G. of Hanno is not the chimpanzee. Vague accounts of apes of great size, and of which very wonderful stories were told, were from time to time brought from Western Africa; but it was not till 1847 that the G. became really known to naturalists, when a skull was sent to Dr Savage of Boston by Dr Wilson, an American missionary on the Gaboon river. Since that time, not only have skeletons and skins been obtained in sufficient number for scientific examination, but information has also been procured concerning the habits of the animal in its native haunts. The accounts of the G. given in Du Chaillu's Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa (Lond. 1861), are regarded by the highest scientific authorities, and particularly by Owen, as in the main trustworthy, notwithstanding all the doubt that has been cast over that traveller's narrative of his adventures; and there is little doubt that they are in accordance with all that we have learned from other sources, and with the inferences to be deduced from the dentition and osteology of the animal.

The G. differs from the chimpanzee in its greater size; the height of an adult male in an erect posture being commonly about five feet six inches or five feet eight inches, although there is reason to think that

seat of the reigning dynasty of the country, it gives name to the dominant race-a race noted alike for fidelity and valour during the mutiny of 1857. G. is 53 miles to the west of Khatmandu, the capital

of the state.

GO'RKUM (Dutch, Gorinchem), a town and fortress of the Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, is situated on the right bank of the Merwede, at the junction of the Linge with that river, 22 miles east-south-east of Rotterdam. It is well built, has a town-house, several military establishments, and a great transit trade in agricultural produce and fish, especially salmon. Pop. 9000. GÖRLITZ, a fortified town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, is a principal station on the railway from Dresden to Breslau, and is situated on a declivity on the left bank of the Neisse, 52 miles west of Liegnitz. It is well built, is surrounded by old walls, and flanked with towers, the chief of which is the Kaisertrutz, now the guard-house and armoury of the town. Among the many beautiful Gothic churches, the most interesting is that of St Peter and St Paul, built 1423-1497, and having five naves, a magnificent organ, and a bell 124 tons in weight. In the north-west of the town is the Kreuzkapelle (Chapel of the Cross), an imitation of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. G. has also a gymnasium with an excellent library, numerous educational and benevolent institutions, and a theatre. A viaduct upwards of 1500 feet in length, and 115 feet high, one of the grandest in the north of Germany, here crosses the valley of Neisse. G. has manufactures of cloth, pens, leather, glass, and tobacco; has extensive weaving and bleaching, and a lively transit trade. In eight cloth factories, driven by water and steam power, 1590 workers produce 18,148 pieces of cloth annually. Pop. (1871) 42,000.

GÖRLITZ PROCESS is the name of a celebrated trial which took place in Germany in 1850. It was occasioned in this way: On the 13th of June 1847, the Countess of Görlitz was strangled by a servant of her own named Johann Stauff, whom she had caught stealing some valuables from an open desk in her sitting-room, and her corpse was found a few hours after burned by a combustible stuff heaped upon her. After more than two years spent in preliminary investigation, the case was tried before the assizes at Darmstadt, 11th of March 1850, and occupied a whole month. The murderer, who obstinately denied having committed the crime imputed to him, was condemned to imprisonment for life. But the scientific interest of the case arose from its having led to a discussion on the possibility of the spontaneous combustion of the human body. While the physician, Von Siebold, declared in favour of the possibility, the chemists Bischoff (q. v.) and Liebig (q. v.) sought to demonstrate the opposite opinion, which is generally held by scientific men. See SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. GÖRRES, JAKOB JOSEPH VON, a distinguished German author, was born at Coblenz, January 25, 1776. In common with most of the ardent youth of the time, G. threw himself eagerly into the movement of the French Revolution; became an active member of the clubs and debating societies which sprung up in all the towns upon the French border, and established a newspaper, entitled the Red Journal, which was the exponent of the most extreme opinions of the time. In the year 1799, he went to Paris as the chief of a deputation to negotiate the annexation of the Rhineland to the French Republic, but the revolution of the 18th Brumaire put an end to this and all similar dreams. G. returned to Germany, disgusted

From

with politics, quietly settled down in a professorship in his native town, and devoted himself exclusively to literature for several years. His works on art, on physiology, on the laws of organism, and on the relations of faith and science, attracted much attention. In 1806, he published the first part of his well-known collection of German Popular Legends; and in 1808, his work on the mythology of the Asiatic nations, and a further contribution to the legendary literature of Germany. these studies, however, in common with the great body of the German nation, he was aroused to the hope of liberation from French tyranny, by the dition. G. was not, slow to appeal to the national reverses of the French arms in the Russian expesentiment of his countrymen in the Rhenish Mercury, one of the most spirit-stirring journals which Germany had ever possessed; he became, in truth, the re-establishment of German independence, G. the literary centre of the national movement. After continued the career of a journalist, and addressed himself against the encroachments of domestic absolutism with the same energy with which he had denounced the tyranny of foreign occupation; until, having drawn upon himself the displeasure of the government, he was obliged to flee to France, and afterwards to Switzerland. In 1827, he gladly accepted the professorship of the History of Literature in the new university just then founded at Munich by the liberal King Ludwig of Bavaria From this date, G. made Munich his home, and his late years were devoted to literature, and in part also to the animated religious controversies occasioned in Germany by the contests between the Archbishop of Cologne and the Prussian government on the subject of mixed marriages and Hermesianism. See HERMES. In all these controversies, G., who was an ardent Roman Catholic, took an active and influential part. He was, if not the originator, at least the main supporter of the well-known Roman Catholic journal, the Historisch-Politische Blätter. His last work of importance was his Christliche Mystik (Ratisbon, 1836-1842). He died January 27, 1848. See the Historisch-Politische Blätter, 1848, and Wetser's Kircher Lexicon, vol. iv.

GORT, a small but thriving town of Ireland, in the province of Connaught, is prettily situated on a small stream in the county of Galway, and close to its southern boundary, 17 miles north-north-east of the town of Ennis. Its trade is chiefly in retail. Pop. (1871) 2077.

GO'RTSCHAKOFF, a Russian family, traces its ancestry through St Michael of Tschernigoff (born 1246) to Rurik and Vladimir the Great.-PRINCE PETER G., governor of Smolensk, defended that town two years (1609-1611) against Sigismund of Poland, when it was taken by storm.-PRINCE DIMITRI G., born 1756, was a celebrated Russian poet, and wrote odes, satires, and epistles. He died 1824.-PRINCE ALEXANDER G., born 1764, served under his uncle Suwaroff in Turkey and Poland, displayed great courage at the capture of Praga (a suburb of Warsaw), and was made lieutenantgeneral in 1798. In the campaign of 1799, he commanded under Korsakoff at Zürich, was subsequently made military governor of Viborg, repulsed Marshal Lannes at Heilsburg, and commanded the right wing at the battle of Friedland. Appointed minister of war in 1812, he filled this post to the end of the war, when he was made general of infantry, and member of the imperial council. He died in 1825.-PRINCE ANDREAS G. served in 1799 as major-general under Suwaroff in Italy; and commanded a division of grenadiers at Borodino, in

1812, where he was wounded. In the campaign of 1813-1814, he commanded the 1st corps of Russian infantry, and distinguished himself at Leipsic and Paris. He was made general of infantry in 1819, and in 1828 retired from active service.-PRINCE PETER G. was born in 1790. Having made the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, he served in Caucasia under General Yermoloff. As chief of the general staff of Wittgenstein in 1826, he was one of the signers of the Treaty of Adrianople. In 1839, he was appointed governor-general of Eastern Siberia, and occupied that important post until, in 1851, he

retired from active life.

On the outbreak of the

Crimean war, however, he offered his services, which were accepted; and at the battle of the Alma he commanded the left wing of the Russian troops. He also took part in the battle of Inkermann.

GORTSCHAKOFF, PRINCE MIKAIL, brother of the preceding, was born in 1795, commenced his military career as an officer of artillery, and distinguished himself in 1828 at the sieges of Silistria and Schumla. Chief of the staff of Count Pahlen in

1831, he gave proofs of extraordinary valour in the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. He was wounded at Grohow, and made general; succeeded Count Toll as chief of the staff of the whole army, was appointed general of artillery in 1843, and military governor of Warsaw in 1846. In 1853, he commanded the Russian forces in the Danubian provinces, crossed the Danube, at Braila, March 23, 1854, occupied the frontiers of Bessarabia, and in March 1855 directed the defences of Sebastopol, attacked by the armies of Great Britain and France. As a reward for his services in this unsuccessful but still brilliant defence, Prince G. was appointed by the Emperor Alexander II. lieutenant-general of the kingdom of Poland, and was for several years a wise and conciliatory representative of his youthful emperor at Warsaw. He died May 30, 1861.-PRINCE ALEXANDER G., Russian diplomatist, brother of the preceding, was born in 1800. He was secretary of the Russian embassy in London in 1824, chargé d'affaires at Florence in 1830, counsellor of the embassy at Vienna in 1832, and envoy extraordinary to Stuttgart in 1841. In 1854, he was charged by the Emperor Nicolas with the interests of Russia in the Vienna conferences; and in 1856 he succeeded Count Nesselrode as Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 1870, he issued his circular upsetting the treaty of 1856, and leading to the London Conference of 1871, which granted the demands of Russia.

GORUCKPO'RE, a city of Hindustan, in the sub-presidency of the North-West Provinces, and capital of a district of the same name, stands on the left bank of the Rapti, which joins, 85 miles further down, the Ghagra from the left, the whole of the intermediate course being navigable. It is in lat. 26° 42′ N. and long. 83° 23 E., being 430 miles to the north-west of Calcutta; and it contains about 50,000 inhabitants. The district of G. has an area of 7346 square miles, and a population of

2,376,000.

GORY DEW, a dark red slimy film not unfrequently to be seen on damp walls and in shady places; often on the whitewashed walls of damp cellars, where its appearance is apt to occasion alarm from its resemblance to blood. It is one of the lowest forms of vegetable life, one of the algae of the group Palmellacea (included in Confervaceae), and nearly allied to the plant to which the phenomenon of RED SNOW (q. v.) appears to be chiefly owing. Its botanical name is Palmella cruenta. It sometimes extends over a considerable surface, and becomes a tough gelatinous mass. The structure

and mode of growth of this and allied plants will be noticed under the head PALMELLACEE. Its characteristic red colour appears also in Hamatococcus sanguineus, a nearly allied plant, found in similar situations, but which seems to extend more as an aggregation of cells, not soon melting down into an indefinite slime like the cells of the Palmella. The prevalent colour of the group, however, is green.

Austria, in the crown-land of the Kustenland GÖRZ, or GÖ'RITZ, an important town of (Coast Districts), (q. v.), and capital of a district of the same name, is charmingly situated in a fruitful plain on the left bank of the Isonzo, about 25 miles north-north-west from Trieste. Among its principal buildings are the old castle of the former Counts of Görz, now used as a prison; and the cathedral, with a beautiful sacrarium. G. has extensive sugarrefining, and manufactures of rosoglio, silks, linen, cotton, and leather; it has also a thriving trade in its manufactures and in dried fruits. Charles X. of France died here, November 6, 1837. Pop. 14,000.

GO'SHAWK (Astur), a genus of Falconida (q. v.), distinguished from the true falcons by a lobe or festoon, instead of a sharp tooth, on the edge of the

Goshawk (Astur palumbarius)

(Copied from Falconry in the British Isles).

which reaches only to the middle of the tail. It is upper mandible, and by the shortness of the wing, more nearly allied to the sparrow-hawks, from which it is distinguished by its more robust form, by its shorter legs, and by the middle toe not being elongated, as in that genus. The species to which the name G. originally and strictly belongs (A. palumbarius), is very widely diffused over Europe, Asia, the north of Africa, and North America, chiefly inhabiting hilly and wooded regions. It is now very rare in Britain, particularly in England. Although one of those that were called ignoble birds of prey, it was much used for falconry, being easily trained, and very successful in catching such game as is either confined to the ground, or does not rise far from it, or such as is to be found in woods, through the branches of which the G. readily threads its way in pursuit. The G. was thus flown at hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges, &c. ordinarily seeks its prey by flying near the ground, and can remain a very long time on the wing. It follows its prey in a straight line, not rising in the air to descend upon it, like the falcons; and when baffled by the object of pursuit entering a wood

It